Paper 1 Summary tables that cover all the information for the 12 core studies for the new Cambridge AS Psychology specification
Notes made by 2 students who achieved an A in their AS exam
CORE Psychology being investigated & assumptions
STUDY
Assumptions Biological approach → Genetics, Evolution, and Hormones can all be used to explain behavior, cognitions, and emotions
of the
biological Effect of genes
approach
Responsible for transmitting certain characteristics from one generation to the next
Affects our physical development, behavior, and mental processing
Effects of evolution
Genes gradually change over time/are expressed differently
Survival of the fittest
Effect of hormones
The endocrine system produces and secretes hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers
They travel through the blood
The pituitary gland in the brain controls the release of hormones
Testosterone (male) and Oestrogen (female)
Dement and Sleep
Kleitman The body is inactive
(sleep & Altered state of consciousness
dreams) Sleep stages have been identified using EEG which measures brain activity in terms of amplitude and frequency
Each stage is characterized by differing brain-wave activity
REM sleep: stage of sleep where eyes are rapidly moving under eyelids, associated with dreaming.
nREM sleep: Stage of sleep where our eyes are still, not associated with dreaming
Ultradian rhythms
Bodily cycles that repeat more than once every 24 hours.
During the night, we move through several 90-minute sleep cycles.
Earlier in the night, the cycles include a higher proportion of non-REM (NREM) sleep.
Later in the night, we spend more time in stages 1, 2, and REM sleep.
Circadian rhythms is a 24 hour cycle
Dreams
Subjective memories of our experiences during sleep
Vivid, visual sequences of imagery that occur during sleep
Hasset et al.
(monkey toy Sex differences
preferences) Physical and behavioral differences between males and females due to hormones and brain
Types of play and toy preferences differ between human infants with differing sex chromosomes
Socialization
Learning to behave in a socially acceptable way through socialization, differs between the two genders in different cultures
These differences are due to society’s differing expectations of girls and boys
Boys are rewarded for copying and acting like ‘men’
Girls are rewarded cor copying and acting like ‘women’
Gender stereotypes
A bias exhibited in society – When you assign traits, behaviors, emotions, or occupations to males and females
,Hölzel et al. Mindfulness
(mindfulness Mindfulness is a stress-reduction technique used to improve wellbeing through developing awareness of the present moment and
& brain encouraging compassionate, non-judgemental attitudes. So positively affects the well-being
scans)
Localization of function
The idea that specific brain structures are responsible for specific behaviors/ cognitive processes
Eg. hippocampus is responsible for memory
Structural plasticity is where brain structure changes
Brain damage proves that localisation of function exists
Assumptions 1 Information is processed through the same route in all humans: input – process –
of the output, in a similar way to how information is processed by a computer.
cognitive Cognitive theorists believe that we are all genetically programed to process information through the same route to respond external
approach stimuli
2 People have individual differences in their cognitive processing, such as
attention, language, thinking, and memory. These processes can also help to
explain behavior and emotion.
These individual differences can mean that people have difficulty in concentration or reading skills but also could mean they can exc
in one certain topic
Andrade Memory
(doodling) Encoding,storage and retrieval of information leading to long term retention
Focusing and new strategies can lead to more being remembered
Incidental memory is information that is encoded stored and can be retrieved without mental effort and part of daily input processing
Attention
Attention is concentration of mental effort on mental/ sensory events. It is selectively directed to certain information ignoring and
filtering out other information
Concentration on doodling
Doodling is a pattern or drawing created to pass time
Doodling can improve concentration by increasing arousal levels, inhibiting daydreaming and keeping us alert to external stimuli
Doodling and concentration are 2 different parts of the brain
Baron-Cohen Theory of mind
(eyes test &
autism) » Theory of mind is the ability to determine the mental state of ourselves and other people
Mentalizing involves determining the mental state and content of another person by putting oneself into their position and examining
their emotions/behaviors/cognitions eg. happiness or reunification
» It is linked to social sensitivity and the ability to understand other people’s opinions or views
Can be tested with revised eyes test
Social sensitivity
The ability of an individual to identify/ understand/ respect other peoples feelings with high social sensitivity recognising social cues
and appropriate responses
Pozzulo et al. Eyewitness testimony
(line-ups) » The police may ask people present at the scene of an accident and/or crime to provide a description of what they saw/heard/smelt
» These descriptions may help the investigation and/or provide evidence that is later used in legal proceedings against the culprit(s)
» This may be unreliable due to distortion of memory and degraded nature of memory - leading to confabulation
False positive responses
Cognitive researchers make participants observe a staged crime/event to identify the culprit from a selection of people called a line u
,Assumptions 1. We all begin as a blank slate.
of the In Latin its called tabula rasa
learning We are born with no innate/inborn knowledge
approach Direct experiences with the environment can leave a “mark on our slate” and change our behavior
2. We learn through the processes of operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and social learning. This can be understood using
the stimulus-response model.
Operant conditioning
We learn through the consequences of our behavior by either punishment or positive reinforcement
For example, in Fagen et al the elephants learned to voluntarily complete the trunk wash by receiving chopped banana as positive
reinforcement encouraging them to repeat this behavior
Classical conditioning
We learn through association
Where an automatic response is paired with neutral stimulus
For example, in Pavlov study, the dog is conditioned to associate the sound of a bell with being fed so when they hear the bell they
start to salivate
Social learning
When a person observes a model (specifically those they identify with) and imitates behavior if motivated
So they retain the behavior in their memory
If motivated they are likely to reproduce this behavior - delayed or imitated imitation
Bandura et al. Social learning theory
(aggression) When a person observes a model (specifically those they identify with) and imitates behavior if motivated
They retain the behavior in their memory
If motivated they are likely to reproduce this behavior - delayed or imitated imitation
Aggression
Aggression is a behavior where there's the intention to harm another person or object
This can be physical or verbal
Good self-regulation can inhibit aggression
Fagen et al. Operant conditioning + positive reinforcement
(elephant Behaviors are reinforced (become more likely) when they are rewarded.
learning) Elephants are operantly conditioned by being given chopped bananas as a positive reinforcement when they do a movement relatin
to the trunk wash, this will motivate them to repeat this movement until they voluntarily complete the entire truck wash in order
Primary reinforcement and secondary reinforcement
Primary reinforcement is where the elephants were given chopped banana for specific trunk movements so it would become more
likely
Secondary reinforcement is reinforcer that does not meet the biological need but is associated with the primary reinforcer. The
secondary reinforcer is the whistle sound that is done when the elephants do a behavior correctly associating the chopped banana t
the trunk movement making the elephants more likely to repeat the behavior
Shaping + behavioral chaining:
Elephants are trained to gradually complete the series of behaviors in the correct order where rewards increase repetition of the
behavior
Animals are rewarded for doing one behavior correctly then 2 until they learn all in a chain order
, Type of reinforcement Description Example: teaching an elephant to raise its trunk
Positive reinforcement Target behavior is followed by something desirable (a reinforcer/reward); The elephant is given a chopped banana to raise its trunk
behavior becomes more likely
Negative Removal of an aversive/negative stimulus as a reward following a target The elephant is prodded with a stick until it raises its trunk
reinforcement behavior; behavior becomes more likely
Punishment Undesirable behaviors are followed by an unpleasant/aversive stimulus; Prodding an elephant with a stick when it puts its trunk in any position other than
behavior becomes less likely raised
Primary reinforcement Using a reinforcer that meets a biological need Giving chopped banana after elephant raises its trunk
Secondary Using a reinforcer that does not meet a biological need but is associated A whistle is blown as a reward for raising trunk (after the elephants had been
reinforcement with a primary reinforcer classically conditioned to associate the whistle with banana)
Saavedra and Phobias
Silverman Intense fear/ anxiety when a person comes in contact with a certain object/situation
(button This study is about button phobia
phobia)
Classical conditioning:
We learn through association paring neutral stimulus with an involuntary response
Expectancy learning: pairing a neutral stimulus with aversive (scary) stimulus to cause involuntary fear response - NOT IN S+S THIS
IS FOR FEAR BASED PHOBIAS
» Evaluative learning: type of classical conditioning where a neutral stimulus is paired with aversive disgusting stimulus causing a
disgust response
Operant conditioning:
We learn through the consequences of our behavior by either punishment or positive reinforcement
For example, in Fagen et al the elephants learned to voluntarily complete the trunk wash by receiving chopped banana as positive
reinforcement encouraging them to repeat this behavior
S+S used praise of boys mother as the positive reinforcement
Assumptions 1. Social norms - expectations that people believe in within society on which attitudes are expressed in and behaviors and
of the social conformity
approach 2. Behaviors/ cognitions/emotions are influenced by other individuals → Ex: In Milgram, the experimenter gave prods to make
the participant keep administering electric shocks
3. Behaviors/ cognitions/emotions are influenced by groups/conformity → In Piliavin, participants often helped after the
modeled help
4. Conformity is the powerful desire to belong and people change their behavior to follow other people’s opinions
Milgram Obedience + social pressure
(obedience) Obedience is the result of social pressure where a person complies with direct orders from a person who is perceived as a higher
authority level
People have a strong tendency to be obedient to someone who is perceived as an authority figure
Act of kindness is the result of social pressure so it is important for a high functioning society
Situational and dispositional factors are responsible for obedience
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