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AQA A* A-level Biology Notes (Year 12 Content) £20.66   Add to cart
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AQA A* A-level Biology Notes (Year 12 Content)

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I achieved 244/260 (94%) in my Biology AQA A-level using these notes ALONE. This contains Units 1-4 for AQA A-level. I have another document for Year 13 content specifically.

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  • September 1, 2024
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  • 2023/2024
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Biological Molecules

3.1.1 Monomers and polymers

 The biochemical basis of life is similar for all living things – we all have
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms within us, made up of proteins,
carbohydrates and lipids with the same nucleic acids as genetic material

 Most carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids are polymers
 A polymer is a large, complex molecule made up of a large number of
monomers joined together by covalent bonds
 Monomers are the smaller units from which larger molecules are made
 Examples of monomers include monosaccharides, amino acids and
nucleotides
 Examples of polymers include polysaccharides, polypeptides and nucleic
acids




 Monomers are joined together to form polymers via condensation reactions
 These reactions involve forming a chemical bond between molecules, and
releasing a molecule of water as a by-product. This extra water molecule is
where it gets its name from, because it forms water just like condensation

, The polar opposite of condensation is hydrolysis
 In hydrolysis, water is used to break down polymers back into their
individual monomer molecules by breaking the chemical bonds between the
different monomers
 This again can be derived from the name: hydro meaning water and lysis
meaning “splitting up”

,3.1.2 Carbohydrates
 All carbohydrates only contain C, H and O atoms
 The monomers that larger carbohydrates are made from are
monosaccharides
 Glucose, fructose and galactose are all examples of monosaccharides
 Many monosaccharides can undergo condensation to form a polysaccharide,
and 2 monosaccharides react to form a disaccharide




 Glucose is a hexose sugar because it is a monosaccharide with 6 carbon
atoms
 Glucose has two isomers (versions of the same molecule with the same
molecular formula (C6H12O6) but different structure): alpha-glucose and
beta-glucose:




 Although the spec shows a simplified version, it is best to draw glucose
isomers as shown above
 There is an easy way to remember/draw these molecules:
 Alpha: down, down, up down
 Beta: up, down, up, down

,  First, you start off by drawing the 6 carbon atoms and oxygen in a hexagonal
shape:




 Then, starting from the right-most carbon, draw the OH groups in the
following order:
 For alpha: down down up down
 For beta: up down up down

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