1.1 Gender and Culture in Psychology
- Males and females are physiologically as well as psychologically different.
- Gender= behavioural, cultural and psychological characteristics that distinguish males
and females.
- Universality- all research is assumed to apply equally to both genders.
- Rigorous testing across genders is required instead of making assumptions of
universality to avoid gender bias.
Exam Definitions:
Cultural relativism- appreciating that behaviour varies between
cultures.
Ethnocentrism- emphasising the importance of the behaviour of one’s
own culture.
Holism- considering all aspects of experience, including culture
Universality- believing that some behaviours are the same for all
cultures.
Androcentrism- behaviour of males considered to be the norm.
Gender bias:
1. Males samples
- Research tends to be conducted on all-male samples and this is not often clearly
reported.
- The findings have been generalised to women. E.g Milgram: results have been used to
explain obedience to authority figures for both males and females.
2. Male behaviour as standard
- Androcentrism- If the behaviour of women differs from that of men, the behaviour of
women is seen as a deviation from the norm (atypical.)
3. Emphasis on biological differences
- Explanations for behaviour that emphasise the biology of individuals also sometimes
underemphasise the role of social and external factors.
- As there are anatomical differences between men and women, any theory that has its
roots in biology is liable to implicitly infer that there will be a difference in the behaviour of
the two sexes.
Alpha Bias - the attempt to exaggerate differences between males and females.
- Freud’s theory of moral development: women have weaker moral codes because they do
not fully develop their superego.
Beta Bias- the attempt to downplay/ minimise the differences between males and females.
- Fight or flight response: Documented as being universal; however, research indicates
that women are more likely to foster social support in response to a stressful situation.
EVALUATION
+ Ways of reducing gender bias. Cornwell et al (2013) noted that females are better at
learning, as they are more attentive and organised, thus emphasising both the value and the
positive attributes of women. As a result, this type of research helps to reduce or challenge
gender stereotypes which is important in reducing gender bias.
,+ Freud’s theory of moral development is example of alpha bias.
+ Fight or flight response research is example of beta bias.
:( Negative implications of gender bias. Gender-based research may create misleading
assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate
discriminatory practices. This may provide a scientific ‘justification’ to deny women
opportunities within the workplace or in wider society. Therefore, gender bias in research
may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women.
Cultural bias:
Much of research has been conducted in Western universities and so the results are really
applicable to that population only. The assumption of universality from these studies has
meant that findings have been generalised globally and this is a mistake.
Ethnocentrism- the assumption that one ethnic group is superior to another or all others
and that the behaviour in that group is the norm, implies others are abnormal.
- Can lead to a beta bias, previously deemed appropriate to use an American IQ test all
over the world, when it wasn’t.
Cultural relativism- there is no global ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ and it is important to consider the
behaviour of the individual within their culture before making a judgement. Social norms are
culturally relative as what is considered acceptable in one culture may be unacceptable
elsewhere.
- The Strange Situation lacks cultural relativity as the same method may not be
appropriate for all cultures because of differences in child-rearing practices. Japanese
children rarely separated from their mum, so separation episodes distressing. German
children more independent so tend to be more insecure-avoidant.
EVALUATION
+ Cultural research has led to the development of indigenous psychologies, which is the
development of different groups of theories in different countries. For example Afrocentrism.
It argues that all black people have their roots in Africa and that theories must therefore be
African-centred. This has led to the development of theories that are relevant to the people
not only in Africa, but also to those far removed from their African origins. However, research
is only important in understanding the behaviour within one culture.
+ Ainsworth’s strange situation supports cultural relativism.
+ Example of ethnocentrism is in schizophrenia research. Hallucinations are seen as a
symptom in the diagnostic criteria but also as a sign of power in other cultures.
:( Culturally biased research can have significant real-world effects by, for example,
validating damaging stereotypes. The US Army used an IQ test before WWI which was
culturally biased toward the dominant white majority. Unsurprisingly, the test showed that
African-Americans were at the bottom of the IQ scale and this had a negative effect on the
attitudes of Americans’ toward this group of people, which highlights the negative impact that
culturally biased research can have.
+ One way to deal with cultural bias is to recognise it when it occurs. Smith and Bond found,
in their 1998 survey of European textbooks on social psychology, that 66% of the studies
were American, 32% European, and only 2% from the rest of the world. This suggests that
much psychological research is severely unrepresentative and can be greatly improved by
simply selecting different cultural groups to study.
1.2. Free Will-Determinism
, Determinism:
(Traits that are outside our control, due to internal/external factors and so we don’t exercise
free will over our own behaviour.)
Biological Determinism - Traits/behaviours determined by internal biological factors.
(Biology is destiny.)
a) Physiology (physiological determinism.)
b) Evolution (evolutionary determinism.)
c) Genetics (genetics determinism.)
Psychic Determinism - Traits are determined by unconscious instincts and drives, fears
and desires:
a) Inherent instincts, drives -(Agression; id, ego, superego.)
b) Unconscious mind (behaviour rooted from childhood- e.g. Oedipus complex.)
Environmental Determinism- Traits determined by external forces.
a) Experiences, upbringing, learning, school, parents, peers, society.
b) Prior reinforcement and punishment.
The scientific emphasis on causal explanations - the use of methods from natural
sciences to find causal mechanisms for behaviour/thoughts.
Psychologists should:
1. Develop theory followed by prediction of what might happen (hypothesis.)
- Use empirical methods to test that hypothesis.
- Show if there is a significant effect, which would indicate a causation.
2. All variables should be controlled except for IV.
3. Any change in the DV must be caused by manipulation of IV.
4. If one variable affects behaviour when all other variables are controlled, the
researcher can infer causality.
Free Will:
(Having a choice; ability to make decisions; behaviour and thought under control of the will of
an individual; people are agents of own behaviour.)
- People make choices about their behaviour and behave differently under the same
circumstances; so they are agents of own behaviour.
- If defined as the opposite of determinism, then behaviour has no cause and is entirely
unpredictable and random. However, everyday experiences do not support this view, as
even freely chosen behaviour has a cause and is predictable. E.g. when you ask a friend
to take you to airport and he rlly wants to, because they are polite and kind; although it
seems like their choice, it could be because of their personality.
- To overcome problem, it was suggested to refer to debate as ‘soft determinism and hard
determinism’, instead of ‘free will and determinism.’
Soft Determinism:
- Traits and behaviours are determined by external or internal forces but an individual can
still exercise some control, e.g. via thought processes, a person’s own character, wishes,
conscious desires and goals.
- Behaviour is free from coercion (external forces but not free from causation.)
Hard Determinism:
- Traits are entirely out of individual’s control as they are caused by environment, external
forces, and events outside one’s personal control.
