Lecture notes
Memory A-Level Psychology (year 12)
A* notes on topic: memory in alevel psychology course in year 1 (year 12)
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MEMORYThe multi-store model of memory: sensory register, short-term memory and
long-term memory
Always draw out diagrams of memory models if you have time as this gains you credit
● The Multi-Store Model of Memory was devised
by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968.
● This theoretical model seeks to explain how
information is transmitted from the outside world
through different stores of memory, and how it is
processed at each point.
Features of each store: coding, capacity and duration.
★ Coding is which format the information is stored in.
★ Capacity is how much (the quantity) of information that can be held in the memory
store at any one time.
★ Duration is how long information stays in the memory store.
★ Function is what each store does.
● The mind is flooded with environmental stimuli coming from the eyes, ears, taste
receptors, touch receptors ..etc.
● This information arrives at a part of the mind called the Sensory Register. The
information enters and is coded in the sensory register in whatever form it was
perceived in (so it is modality specific) and each kind is stored in a different store
within the sensory register depending on which sense organ the information came
from. Visual memory is stored in the Iconic store, sound in the Echoic store, smell in
the Olfactory store, touch in the Haptic store, and taste in the Gustatory store. As
there is a lot of stimulus coming in all the time the capacity of the sensory register is
unlimited. As most of the sensory information that comes in doesn’t need to be
consciously considered, and there is a lot of it, the duration of sensory memory in
the sensory register is only about 250 milliseconds.
● Only sensory information that we pay attention to will move to the next store, and
so the vast majority will be lost.`
★ The Short Term Memory store is the next store. It has a duration of about 18-30
seconds. Only information that is rehearsed (consciously repeated inside the mind)
here will pass into the next store, and the rest will be lost, as by rehearsing
information we can keep it in the store for longer than 18-30 seconds. Short term
, memory is coded acoustically as the information is rehearsed using our internal
voice.
★ There are two kinds of rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal keeps the information in
the short term memory for longer, and it may pass into the long term memory
eventually. Elaborative rehearsal is where we semantically encode the information
(give it meaning), moving it directly from the short term memory to the long term
memory.
★ Chunking is a way to improve short term memory by grouping items so that each
group is treated as one item by the short term memory, thus improving recall as the
overall number of ‘items’ is reduced.
● The next store is the Long Term Memory. Information in the long term memory has
an unlimited duration and it has an unlimited capacity. Information in our long term
memory may be lost (we lose access to it), but this may be regained at a later date.
Information in the long term memory is coded semantically (based on its
meaning).To use the information in the long term memory we need to bring it out of
the long term memory and back into the short term memory. This process is called
retrieval.
● Unlike the short and long term memory the sensory register is not under conscious
control; it is recorded automatically. Any information found in the short or long
term memory is initially gathered by the sensory register.
Research on the sensory register
➔ Capacity- Sperling (1960) flashed a grid of 20 letters onto a screen for a 20th of a
second. When participants were asked to recall random rows of letters the recall was
strong. This suggests that all the rows of letters were stored in the sensory register
as participants didn’t know which row would be asked for, meaning that the iconic
store in the sensory register has a large capacity.
Research on the short term memory
➔ Coding- Baddeley (1966) gave four 10 word lists to four participant groups. The first
list consisted of acoustically similar words (words that sound similar). The second
list consisted of acoustically dissimilar words (words that sound different). The third
list consisted of semantically similar words (words with similar meanings), and the
fourth list consisted of semantically dissimilar words (words with unrelated
meanings). Baddeley found that immediate recall was worst for list 1, and recall after
20 minutes was worst for list 3. This suggests that information in the short term
memory is coded acoustically, meaning that immediate recall for list 1 was hardest
because the words all sounded similar, so they were all effectively stored as one item,
making recall difficult.
, ➔ Capacity- Jacobs (1887) presented participants with a list of letters or numbers.
Participants then had to recall the list in order. Jacobs found that the capacity for
letters was around 7 items and 9 for numbers, suggesting that the capacity of the
short term memory is very limited.
➔ Duration- Peterson and Peterson (1959) showed participants 3-letter trigrams (i.e:
HFR, TKD). Trigrams with any meaning were avoided so that participants could not
rehearse the information semantically. Then participants had to count backwards for
a few seconds. This interference task was designed to stop maintenance rehearsal.
Peterson and Peterson found that after 18 seconds recall was less than 10%. This
suggests that information remains in the short term memory for only a few seconds
before it disappears.
Research on long-term memory
➔ Coding- Baddeley (1966) (see above)
➔ Capacity- Wagnaar (1986) kept a diary over the course of six years which recorded
over 2,400 events. He tested himself on the events and found a 75% recall after 1 year
and a 45% recall after 5 years, suggesting that the capacity of the long term memory
is very large, potentially limitless.
➔ Duration- Bahrick (1975) showed old photographs and names (including those of
old school friends) to participants aged 17-74, recall was 90% after 15 years, and still
80% for names after 48 years. This suggests that the duration of the LTM is very
large, potentially limitless.
Evaluation of the Multi-store Model
★ The short duration of the SR is supported by evolutionary theory, as in the wild quick
reactions are vital for survival, so only important information would be retained and
processed. Too much information would lead to slower reactions.
★ There is a large base of research that supports the idea of distinct STM and LTM
systems. An example of this is the Shallice and Warrington (1974) study of KF, a
brain-damaged case study patient whose STM was impaired following a motorcycle
accident, but his LTM remained intact.
★ It makes sense that memories in the LTM are encoded semantically – i.e. you might
recall the general message put across in a political speech, rather than all of the
words as they were heard.
★ The MSM was a pioneering model of memory that inspired further research and
consequently other influential models, such as the Working Memory Model.
★ Some research into STM duration has low mundane realism, as the stimuli
participants were asked to remember bear little resemblance to items learned in real
life, e.g. Peterson and Peterson (1959) used nonsense trigrams such as ‘XQF’ to
investigate STM duration. Similarly the ecological validity of many of the
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