Give some examples of cell types that are considered epithelial, connective, and others -
answer✔epithelial - Simple - single layer • Stratified - multiple layers • Glandular epithelium =
secretory epithelium o Stratified squamous epithelium is best at withstanding physical stress
Connective - Myocytes (muscle cells) • Skeletal muscle fibres o Permanent cells but tissue able
to repair • Cardiac myocytes o Permanent cells • Smooth muscle cells o Stable cells Fibroblasts,
collagen and adipocytes - stable cells Endothelium, cartilage and bone (osteoblasts, osteocytes)
- stable cells
Other - Other cells (not considered epithelial or connective) • Mesothelial cells or mesothelium
• Melanocytes • Germ cells • Lymphoid tissue • Bone marrow and haemopoietic cells, red
blood cells, neutrophils, lymphocytes and macrophages • CNS
What is meant by labile, stable and permanent cells, give some examples - answer✔Labile -
constantly divide e.g. skin, GIT Stable - can divide e.g. liver, kidney Permanent - can't divide e.g.
cardiac myocytes, neurons in CNS
Define types of cellular adaptation and understand when these processes are not
possible/reversible - answer✔
Describe the main differences between apoptosis and necrosis - answer✔Apoptosis -
physiological or pathological - active - can involve a single cell - no inflammatory response
Necrosis - pathological only - passive - kills neighbouring cells, infarct - cause inflammatory
response
What is an infarct and how does it occur? - answer✔An infarct is an area of necrosis - it occurs
due to sudden, severe stress
What determines whether a stimulus causes atrophy or infarction? - answer✔How suddenly
and severely the stress is applied. Slow, partial introduction of stress may allow the cell to
slowly adapt (autophagy and apoptosis). Sudden application of severe stress causes necrosis
and infarct.
What effect does ageing have on cells and organs? - answer✔With increasing age, cells
gradually lose the ability for autophagy. More apoptosis occurs rather than autophagy. All
functional tissue atrophies with age.
Define neoplasia, tumour, malignancy, dysplasia, -in situ and metastasis/metastasize -
answer✔Neoplasia: The presence or formation of new, abnormal growth of tissue Tumour: A
swelling of a part of the body, caused by an abnormal growth of tissue whether benign or
malignant (generally without inflammation) Malignancy: Potentially fatal, cancer cells can
invade nearby tissues Dysplasia: The presence of cells that are genetically and phenotypically
abnormal -in situ (cancer): A group of abnormal cells that remain in the place where they first
formed (they have not spread). A carcinoma in situ is a malignant epithelial tumour that has yet
to penetrate the basement membrane Metastasis/metastasize: The development of secondary
malignant growths at a distance from the primary site of cancer
Explain the basic risk factors for the development of mutation and tumour genesis -
answer✔Mutagens • May act directly to cause damage or may do so through increasing
oxidant production or reducing antioxidant defences • Exposure to carcinogens - asbestos, vinyl
chloride, cadmium, chromium and nickel compounds • UV, alcohol, smoking, obesity, genetics,
viruses, some chronic inflammatory conditions Stressors (such as smoking and gastric acid) that
cause metaplasia and hyperplasia in cells increase risk for development of mutation and
tumour genesis. Increased cellular proliferation means more likely for mutations and for
mutations to be passed onto daughter cells, which can become dysplastic. Two cellular
adaptations that increase risk of tumour development - metaplasia and hyperplasia
Understand the 8 behavioural changes that occur in cancer cells as a result of multiple
mutations - answer✔Self-sufficiency in growth signals - proliferation without external stimulus
2 Insensitivity to growth-inhibitory signals 3 Evasion of apoptosis 4 Defect in DNA repair 5
Limitless replicative potential 6 Sustained angiogenesis 7 Ability to invade and metastasise 8
The Warburg Effect - prefers aerobic glycolysis
List the 3 main routes of metastasis and common sites affected - answer✔Via blood -
haematogenous 2. Via lymph or lymphatic spread (vessels and nodes) 3. Via direct seeding e.g.
floating in fluid in the pleural or peritoneal fluid
Define hyperaemia, oedema (exudate vs transudate), effusion, resolution, organisation, ulcer &
abscess - answer✔Hyperaemia - An excess of blood in the vessels supplying tissue or other
parts of the body (increased blood flow) Exudate - inflammatory extravascular fluid with HIGH
protein concentration Transudate - extravascular fluid with LOW protein concentration Effusion
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