3. These are ideas of language are
inherant: Hedging e.g. I guess,
Politeness, Tag questions,
Emotional emphasis, Empty
adjectives e.g. what a sweet,
charming person, Correct grammar
1. Women talk a lot and pronounciation, Lack a sense
of humour, Direct quotations,
Extended vocab, Declarations with
2. Women use half finished
interrogative inntonations. Lakoff 1975
sentences e.g. "and it was still
hot." a reference to something not
included in the sentence. 1. Language is fundamental to
inequality.
3. Women are fond of using 'so' as an intensifier. Study of a university (small study
Study of courtroom behaviour in Norwich group.)
2. Socialisation ensures female Coates 2005 Women topics more personal. Men topics stereotypical.
language remains less assertive
4. Tend to use hyperboles/exaggerate.
and more insecure to men's. Men more likely to interrupt as
Male speakers covert language and
Jesperson 1922 use non-standard forms. Trudgill 1970 men are more dominant. Men's
5. Women arefluent in a smaller vocab then men. Zimmerman and West 1975 dominance lies in their
They tend to speak quicker than men due to this as conversational management e.g.
men are searching for the 'right' word. Female speakers overt language. speaking more, having longer
Tested Lakoff's hypothesis in a
Not on accident that their more turns.
courtroom.
6. Women are damaging the language- their language words negative words for women-
should be policed, women's language is less extensive, represents patriarchy.
Contradicted by Beattie in 1982.
men develop language not women. Language defenses are situation Shulz 1975
specific, based on who has
authority and power in Words marked for females become
"There is a danger of language conversation rather gender.
O'Barr and Atkins 1980 perjorated.
becoming vague and insipid if we
are to content ourselves with
women's expressions. Lakoff's findings were due to Women in same sex conversations: collaborative, positive, polite.
powerlessness not gender, they are
Pilkington 1992
neither characteristics of women or
limited to women. Men in same sex conversations: less collaborative, less complimentary, less supportive then women.
“The idea that men and women... use language in
very different ways and for very different reasons is Women are more likely to adopt grammatical structures of Standard
one of the greatest myths of our time." Englishwhereas men prefer
non-standard, dialectal, lower-prestige forms than females in the same Chesire 1982 Gender can be seen as a performance.
social class... possibly due
Criticised the idea that there are innate differences. to "toughness" being associated with non-standard forms ., Butler 1990
We are constantly constructing gender “it is something we do and not something we are.” This is an argument of behaviour.
Women pay more attention to being good communicators than
men, women talk about people, relationships and feelings. Cameron 2008
Gender Theorists Study of an all male rugby team.
Men have a natural desire to be competitive that results in an aggressive speech style. Kuiper 1991
Men use insults to express solidarity, less cooperation is needed in all male groups.
Words or equal status diminished to inequality e.g.
Cameron theorises that those myths have acted to shape
master= control, mistress= sex.
Jackson and Stockwell 1996
our expectations of men and women and the type of
linguistic behaviour we deem to be normal or deviant. Gender is only one of the circumstances that influences language.
Strong feminist aspect.
Holmes 1992 Social class can also affect the ability to connect with people of both sexes.
Tools of our language belong to patriarchal order.
Language is man-made. Women have been silenced or Tag questions can maintain conversation or a polite way to introduce others to a conversation.
forced to adapt to male language e.g. diminuitive
suffixes, semantic derogation, lexical gaps creating
Spender 1980
26 nouns (non-standard) denote
negative semantic space.
promiscous men, some have
approving connotations e.g.
Redid Z+W's test with larger study
stallion/stud.
Binary view sees male as the Men and women's speech is different due to time Beattie 1982 group and found men only
'norm'. spent in single sex groups as kids. So adults become marginally interrupted more.
like cross cultural communication. 220 nouns (non-standard) denote
promiscous women. All have
disapproving connotations e.g
Difference is due to intent or
slut/tart.
purpose rather than dominant
position in society.
Tannen 1990 Stanley 1977 Equally terms denoting abstinence
e.g. tight bitch are disapproving.
Women are more supportive and listen more as it is
essential to group bonding.
Women use conversational shitwork. They take on the
responsibility to keep the conversation going. Men control female behaviour by
using terms such as slag, dog
Example: men= status vs women=support. Fishman 1983 (physical unattractiveness), bitch
Men speak twice as much as (fault of character).
Example: men= status vs women=support. women in conversation.
Language embodies sexual
inequality.
, Gender Theorists
1. Coates 2005
1.1. Women topics more personal. Men topics stereotypical.
2. Shulz 1975
2.1. Not on accident that their more words negative words for women- represents patriarchy.
2.2. Words marked for females become perjorated.
3. Zimmerman and West 1975
3.1. Study of a university (small study group.)
3.2. Men more likely to interrupt as men are more dominant. Men's dominance lies in their conversational management e.g. speaking more, having
longer turns.
3.3. Contradicted by Beattie in 1982.
4. Pilkington 1992
4.1. Women in same sex conversations: collaborative, positive, polite.
4.2. Men in same sex conversations: less collaborative, less complimentary, less supportive then women.
5. Butler 1990
5.1. Gender can be seen as a performance.
5.2. We are constantly constructing gender “it is something we do and not something we are.” This is an argument of behaviour.
6. Kuiper 1991
6.1. Study of an all male rugby team.
6.2. Men use insults to express solidarity, less cooperation is needed in all male groups.
7. Holmes 1992
