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Academic research on sociology
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Academic research in sociology with distinction on culture and subculture in Britain and on social class and inequality
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Social stratification and inequalitySocial stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in a society
based on several factors, such as wealth, power, prestige, and access to resources (Khawas,
2020).
stratification and defining the class system is not simple. Social classes are often
subjective and can be influenced by a variety of factors, including cultural norms,
social experiences, and social identity their division is not as clear today as it was in
the Victorian period. Traditionally classes have been put into upper, middle, and
lower. However, as time has progressed, these lines have become blurred (Giddens
& Sutton, 2010; Walkerdine,1996).
The caste system in India is a social construct that has shaped the social,
economic, and political landscape of communities for centuries (Kafle, 2003). The
caste system was established based on occupation and social class, dividing people
into four groups: priests, rulers, producers or traders, and manual workers or
servants (Haralambos & Holborn, 2013; Kafle,2003). It is important to note that the
caste system is not limited to Hinduism and is also present in other religions and
communities in India such as Muslim Christians, and Sikhs (Hasnain & Srivastava,
2023). The lowest caste in the system is the Dalits, who were formerly known as
untouchables. (Rao, 2014). The term “untouchability” refers to the practice of
excluding Dalits from social and religious activity, as well as from access to
education, employment, and other opportunities (Singh, 2022). In addition, the caste
system has considerable influence on traditional marriage practices in Indian society
promoting endogamy and arranged marriages within the same caste. However,
education and changing attitudes are slowly challenging these traditional practices
(Sarkar, 2022).
Caste and feudal systems are two different forms of social organisation. While both
systems are hierarchical, there are some key differences between them: A feudal
system is a social structure in which people are organised into a hierarchy based on
their relationship to the land. Feudalism was prevalent in medieval Europe and
Japan. On the other hand, feudal systems are characterised by a hierarchy of lord
and vassal in exchange for loyalty so feudal systems are also characterised by a
, lack of social mobility, with people being born into their social class and remaining
there for life (Valk, 2017).
The system that was applied in South Africa was the apartheid system which
involved racial segregation and discrimination from 1948 until 1994. The system was
designed to keep white minority rule and to deny political and economic rights to
black South Africans. Black people were incarcerated in zones of containment while
also enabling the control and policed exploitation of black people as workers, on
which the country was dependent (Besteman, 2019). Racial segregation is crucial to
explaining the emergence of the urban underclass during the 1970s. The end of
apartheid in South Africa ended decades of segregation and discrimination against
non-white citizens. The election of Nelson Mandela as the first black president of
South Africa marked this change (Fevre & Graham, 2022).
According to sociologists, stratification in the U.K. refers to the hierarchical
arrangement of individuals and groups in society based on factors such as wealth,
income, education, occupation, and social status. This stratification system creates
unequal opportunities and outcomes for individuals and groups, with those at the top
of the hierarchy enjoying greater privileges and advantages than those at the bottom.
Sociologists argue that this system is not only unfair but also has negative
consequences for society, including social unrest, crime, and poor health outcomes.
Stratification in the U.K. is not just based on economic factors but also on factors
such as race, gender, and ethnicity, which can compound the effects of inequality
(Marmot,2015; Modood,2017; Payan,2017; Saunders,2018). Officially, under the
Equality Act 2010, everyone in the UK has the same rights (Ahmad, 2021).
In Britain, there are two methods of measuring social class. First, the Registrar
Generals Scale which was developed in the UK in the early 20th century based on
occupation and employment status. This divides people into six social classes,
ranging from professional and managerial to unskilled manual workers. This has
been criticised for being outdated and not reflecting changes in the labour market
(ONS, 2021).
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