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AQA Alevel Psychology Research Methods Topic Notes
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AQA Alevel Psychology Research Methods Topic Notes
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Types of experiments- Laboratory experiment: experimenter has full control over what happens, high levels of
control over all variables, control environmental factors e.g., noise and temperature as well
as experience each participant has by using standardised procedures. The IV is manipulated
by the researcher between the conditions of the experiment, any change in the DV will be
measured whist all other possible variables that could change DV are kept consistent
between conditions.
- Field experiment: conducting the experiment in naturalistic settings. This change in location
is an attempt to avoid the artificial nature of lab studies. Bickman’s 1974 “The social power
of a uniform”. Locations include anywhere the participants would be expected to behave
naturally. The IV is still changed by the researcher between the conditions of the experiment
and the researcher then measures the difference in the DV.
- Natural experiment: the two levels of independent variable have occurred naturally in the
real world without the influence of the researcher. The researcher simply records the change
in the dependent variable between two levels of IV. Natural experiments can happen
whenever an event causes people to form into levels of the IV. The IV is not changed by the
researchers between the conditions of the experiment. Changes in the DV are still measured
but other possible variables that could change the DV cannot be controlled.
- Quasi experiment: participants cannot be randomly assigned between levels of IV. Often
because levels of IV is an innate characteristic. The characteristics already exist in the sample.
IV already exists in the participants so can’t be randomised between the conditions of the
experiment. The different in the DV will be measured whilst all other possible variables that
could change the DV are kept constant.
Evaluation
- LAB: by holding all variables outside the IV and DV consistent researchers can be confidant in
establishing cause and effect between the changes. High internal validity, easy replicated due
to use of standardised procedures
- LAB: lack ecological validity, findings from lab study cannot be applied to real world
situations. Tasked conducted in lab studied don’t reflect tasks in real life, lacks mundane
realism lowering external validity. Participants are aware they are in a study may alter
behaviour due to demand characteristics to match the aim.
- FIELD: participants should behave more naturally in normal environment so behaviour
observed can be applied to other naturalistic settings, higher ecological validity. Tasks used
more likely to have mundane realism, if participants are unaware there won’t be any
demand characteristics.
- FIELD: lack control over possible extraneous variables that influence measurement of DV, its
difficult to randomly assign participants to separate conditions, may result in changes in DV
that may be due to participant variables reducing internal validity.
- NATURAL: allow research in the areas that could not happen in controlled experimentation,
due to ethical or cost reasons. High external validity as natural experiments are an example
of real behaviour occurring in the real world free of demand characteristics
- NATURAL: these events have already or will happen regardless of the researcher, they have
no influence. Extraneous variables cant be controlled, so the researcher shouldn’t claim they
have found a cause and effect relationship. Often very rare events that cant be replicated
exactly to test for reliability
, - QUASI: the only way to experimentally study factors that are pre-existing characteristics of
participants
- QUASI: may be other factors related to the level of IV that cannot be controlled for, these
change systematically between the levels of IV and alter the measurement of the DV,
confounding variables
Observation
- A non-experimental technique, the researcher watches and records spontaneous/natural
behaviour of participants without manipulating levels of IV.
- Controlled observation: aspects of the environment are controlled, in an attempt to give
participants, the same experience. Conducted in a laboratory setting.
- Research by Ainsworth, Zimbardo and Milgram can be thought of as controlled observations.
There was no variation in IV
- Naturalistic observation: takes place in the “real world” places the participants are likely to
spend their time.
- Overt observation: the participants can see the researcher and are aware their behaviour is
being observed as a part of an observational study.
- Covert observation: the participants aren’t aware they are being observed and they can’t see
someone taking notes/recordings. The observer may be physically present.
- Participant observation: the researcher joins the group being observed and takes part in the
group’s activities and conversations.
- Non participant observation: the researcher is separate from the participants recoding
observations without taking part in the group activities
Evaluation
- Controlled: controlling the environment and giving the same experience reduces likelihood
observed behaviour is due to extraneous variables. Increase internal validity.
- Controlled: the artificiality of the observational environment may result in unnatural
behaviour, not behaviour in real life situations
- Naturalistic: high realism, likely to show more naturalistic behaviour. High external validity,
behaviour is more likely to be generalisable to other situations.
- Naturalistic: uncontrolled extraneous variables may be responsible for the behaviour
observed resulting in lower internal validity
- Overt: ethical as the principle of informed consent means P agree to take part in research
and know what they are signing up for.
- Overt: demand characteristics are likely, if the P know they are being observed they may try
to show behaviour they think the researcher wants. Social desirability bias may be a factor.
- Covert: P unaware they are being observed they are more likely to show naturalistic
behaviour free from demand characteristics
- Covert: More unethical as by definition the P cannot give informed consent
- Participant: by taking part the researcher may build rapport, more trust could lead to P
behaving more naturally and disclosing more
- Participant: researchers can lose objectivity, interpretation of behaviour is biased, seeing
only from the participants perspective
- Nonparticipant: researcher more likely to remain objective in their interpretation
- Nonparticipant: due to lack of trust/rapport the researcher misses out important insights,
not natural behaviour.
, Observational Design
- The choice of behaviours to record and how they are measured.
- Operationalised behavioural categories: the behaviours need to b clearly identifiable and
measurable.
- Time sampling: researcher records all relevant behaviour at set points
- Event sampling: researcher records every time a behaviour occurs from the list of
operationalised behavioural categories.
- Assessing reliability: even with clear behavioural categories interpreting observed behaviour
can be affected by bias, researchers should assess the reliability of their own observation by
seeing if it is consistent with other researcher’s observation
- Inter rater reliability: two or more trained observers conduct the same observation, agree
and use the same checklist of operationalised categories. Observation is conducted
separately by each observer. Compare the two independently produced data sets, a test of
correlation can asses the strength of the relationship between two data sets. Correlation of
0.8 or stronger is generally accepted
- Double blind observation: In observation the researcher may decide to use two observers
who are unaware of the true aims of research to reduce observer bias
Evaluation
- More flexibility to be able to record unexpected types of behaviour
- Can miss behaviour that happens outside of the recording periods
- As long as the behaviour has been included in the list of behavioural categories it should be
recorded if it happens at any stage of the observation
- May miss relevant behaviour that isn’t on the list of behavioural categories
Self-report Techniques
- The participant reveals personal information about themselves in response to a series of
questions
- Interview: participants give information in response to direct questioning from the
researcher. Can also be conducted in person, over the phone
- Questionnaire: participants give information in response to a set of questions that are sent to
them. This can be in the post or completing a form online.
- Open questions: the question is phrased in a wat that allows the participant to answer in
way they choose. This produces qualitative data, non numerical data
- Closed questions: the question is phrased in a way that limits participants’ responses to only
a few fixed options. Produces quantitative data, numerical data
- Designing interviews and questionnaires: how the researcher constructs the study
- Avoiding complex terminology: P may not understand the terms used and if feeling too
embarrassed to ask for an explanation or unable to in a questionnaire they may guess the
meaning resulting in inaccurate responses
- Rewording questions: using a skilled interviewer means questions that P don’t understand
can be reworded, this should b in a way that doesn’t change the questions meaning so
responses can be compared to other P
- Leading questions: these bias the responses in one direction. To avoid this questions should
be written in a way that doesn’t suggest a “correct way” of responding
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