This is a detailed summary all of Eisenhower created using the 'Oxford AQA History for A Level: The American Dream: Reality and Illusion ' by Sally Waller, 'Access to History: The American Dream: Reality and Illusion, for AQA, Second Edition' by Roger Turvey, as well as lesson notes from an Oxfor...
Eisenhower 1953-61
Domestic policy
Dynamic conservatism - ‘conservative when it comes to money, liberal when it comes to human beings’.
- interested in social reform -> willing to involve the gov. in addressing the problems of the poor.
- Conservative
- Promise to reduce domestic spending failed (increased from 31% of the budget in 1953 to
49% in 1961)
- Did not provide the money for the building of many schools which he recommended.
- Liberal
- Expanded social security benefits to cover 10 million Americans, breaking away from
traditional Republican ideas and reflecting Eisenhower’s awareness of those at the bottom of
society.
- However, the 1958 National Defence of Education Act, which gave low-cost loans to
students and federal funds to the states to improve Science, Maths and Languages,
was driven by the Cold War.
- Increased minimum wage by 25% -> challenged the Republican idea of the ‘free market’.
- Made $500 million available for low-income public housing.
- Admitted Alaska and Hawaii as States.
- The 1957 Civil Rights Act was the first civil rights act since 1985 which is better than no bill
at all in achieving racial equality.
- It established the Civil Rights Commission and Civil Rights Division in the Justice
Department, but 80% of Southern AAs were still not registered to vote as the final act
was diluted.
- Public officials could be indicted for obstructing the right to vote, but found not
guilty by all white juries.
- Introduced to win black votes.
- The 1960 Civil Rights Act made obstruction of court-ordered desegregation a federal crime
and introduced penalties for obstructing voting, showing federal responsibility for civil rights.
- However, Southern Democrats diluted the bill that only 3% of AAs were added to the
electoral roll.
- Introduced to win black votes and out of concern for bombings in Southern AA
schools and churches which undermined law and order.
Nixon - a traditional Republican and the de facto leader of the Republican Party whose political position
kept Republicans (the old guard) on Eisenhower’s side.
- Countered the Democrats in a more politically controversial way while Eisenhower maintained a
more dignified stance.
- Stood in for Eisenhower when he had a heart attack.
- Eisenhower’s distribution of role and use of personnel helped maintain his reputation.
McCarthyism - domestically created a climate of fear that caused mistrust among communities and
intensified Cold War tension.
- Early 1950s - Although a famed war hero, Eisenhower was criticised by McCarthy for his choice of
ambassador to Moscow and allowing communist infiltration into government as part of the ‘21 years
of treason’ of Roosevelt, Truman and himself. The majority of the public supported McCarthyism.
- Eisenhower did little to stop this claim as he feared a direct confrontation would weaken his
personal position.
- 1953 - Tried to avoid the whole issue as he needed to keep the Republican Party
unified to pass bills in other areas and battling McCarthy would only stir up a civil war
inside the party.
- After trying to ignore McCarthy, Eisenhower tried to outdo him in the Red-hunting
business. Then, he tried to seduce him with promises of new legislation to destroy
Communism in America.
- ‘Hidden hand’ approach: secretly using White House influence to obstruct McCarthy.
- None of these tactics worked.
- Did not want to appear soft on the problem of internal subversion - did not for a
moment consider granting Hiss and the Rosenbergs clemency.
, - 1954 - McCarthy turned his investigatory resources on the US Army and on members of the
administration itself. Eisenhower had no choice but to fight back.
- The White House tried to discredit McCarthy’s allies.
- The US Army compiled a damaging dossier of dirt on Cohn who was leading McCarthy’s
investigation that showed he used threats and intimidation so that Schine, his assistant, was
given plum assignments and easy duty and leaked it to the press and Congress. McCarthy
and Cohn then stood accused of abuse of power.
- Eisenhower invoked executive privilege to close down McCarthy’s reckless use of
subpoenas to compel witnesses to testify before his committee.
- Proactive approach - May 1954 - Eisenhower ordered administration officials and all
executive branch employees to ignore any calls from McCarthy to testify.
- McCarthy was deprived of credibility and witnesses and his fellow senators turned
against him. In early Dec 1954, the Senate passed a motion of condemnation and
McCarthy was ruined.
Republican Party
- Eisenhower utilised the Democratic support in Congress to defeat the Republican support for the
1953 Bricker Amendment.
- Eisenhower declared his victory in the 1956 re-election was for ‘Modern Republicanism’ which
demonstrated his opposition to traditional Republicanism.
Growth in economy
Growth in the suburbs
- In the suburbs, 11 million out of the 13 million homes to meet the demand for housing were
constructed between 1948 and 1958. -> fulfilled the American dream for many.
- However, estate agents colluded to not allow AAs to buy new homes and white homeowners
were determined to ensure areas were white. Hence, AAs were excluded from this change in
society and were forced to remain in cities where conditions became increasingly
disadvantageous for them with the beginning of ghettoisation.
- The ‘Levittown’ in Hempstead constructed by the Levitt brothers was popular and reasonably priced
at around $8,000, only two and a half times the average family income.
- People queued to purchase Levittown homes when they went on sale. -> Its popularity
boosted the economy.
- The construction boom provided employment and fulfilled the American Dream for
Americans who aspired to suburban life in the ‘white flight’.
Followed through with the GI Bill
- Veterans received four years of college education with living expenses that enabled them to obtain
better jobs and homes, which in turn boosted the economy with better human capital.
- There was generous mortgage assistance which financed 20% of the houses built between 1946
and 1960 as a form of credit, which encouraged their purchases.
Availability of credit
- Facilitated purchases of homes and consumer goods through its convenience.
- The Diner Club from 1950 led to the increase in private debt from $104.8 billion to $263.3 billion
during the 1950s as the first credit card in the world, which greatly benefited banks.
- Companies, such as General Motors, arranged credit terms for cars as they were expensive, which
encouraged Americans to buy them.
Growth of Advertising
- In 1950, $5.7 billion was spent on advertising and the expenditure rose to $11.9 billion due to the
rise of television.
- The advertising industry spent more on advertisements than the state did on education, making it a
massive booming industry.
- The investment in advertising further encouraged the purchase of consumer goods, boosting the
economy.
The benefits of buying summaries with Stuvia:
Guaranteed quality through customer reviews
Stuvia customers have reviewed more than 700,000 summaries. This how you know that you are buying the best documents.
Quick and easy check-out
You can quickly pay through credit card for the summaries. There is no membership needed.
Focus on what matters
Your fellow students write the study notes themselves, which is why the documents are always reliable and up-to-date. This ensures you quickly get to the core!
Frequently asked questions
What do I get when I buy this document?
You get a PDF, available immediately after your purchase. The purchased document is accessible anytime, anywhere and indefinitely through your profile.
Satisfaction guarantee: how does it work?
Our satisfaction guarantee ensures that you always find a study document that suits you well. You fill out a form, and our customer service team takes care of the rest.
Who am I buying these notes from?
Stuvia is a marketplace, so you are not buying this document from us, but from seller kwanlokyiu. Stuvia facilitates payment to the seller.
Will I be stuck with a subscription?
No, you only buy these notes for £10.49. You're not tied to anything after your purchase.
