Unlock a detailed, well-organized set of study notes covering key events, reforms, and political developments in Tsarist and Communist Russia from 1855 to 1964. These notes are perfect for students preparing for AQA History A-Level exam, offering clear explanations, focused summaries, and useful in...
TRYING TO PRESERVE THE AUTOCRACY, 1855 - 1894
Chapter 1: The Russian autocracy in 1855
The political context:
→ In 1855 Russia was an autocratic empire with the ruler being the Tsar
→ Tsar Nicholas I said in 1832 ‘’The Emperor of all the Russia’s in an autocratic and Unlimited
monarch; God himself ordains that all must bow to his supreme power not only out of fear
but also out of conscience.’’
→ The Tsar is the head of the Russian Orthodox Church and regarded by Orthodox believers as
the embodiment of God on Earth.
→ Russians were taught to show devotion to their Tsar and to accept their conditions on Earth
as the will of God
→ The structures of the state and the church were entwined as archbishops and bishops as the
head of the church hierarchy was subject to tsarists control over appointments religious
education most of the church’s finances and issues of administration
→ No one could do anything without the Tsar’s approval
→ He had advisory bodies known as the Imperial Council or Chancellery:
- 35 to 60 nobles specially picked by the Tsar were used to advise him personally and
provide their expert opinion
- The council of ministers, a body of 8 to 14 ministers in charge of different government
departments
- The senate, supposed to oversee all the workings of government but in practice was
largely redundant by 1855
→ The Tsar’s Central government was based in St Petersburg, but the regime also depended on
the provincial nobility for support
→ The civil servants made up bureaucracy were paid by noble officials in which the
bureaucracy was riddles by internal corruption and incompetence
→ The Tsar had at his disposal the world’s largest army of around 1.5 million conscripted serfs
each forced into service for 25 years and made to live in a ‘military colony’
→ This huge army but much smaller Navy absorbed around 45% of the government’s annual
spending
→ The higher ranks of the military were prestigeous posts however the lower ranks were
disciplined harshly, and army life was tough
→ The Tsar also had the service of elite regiments of mounted Cossacks, with special social
privileges – acting both as a personal bodyguard and as police reinforcements
→ To maintain the autocracy the country had developed into a police state which prevented
freedom of speech, freedom of press and travel abroad
→ Political meetings and strikes were forbidden
→ The secret state security network was run by the ‘Third Section’ of the Emperor’s Imperial
Council who had unlimited powers to carry out raids, and to arrest and imprison or send into
exile anyone suspected of anti-tsarist behaviour – sometimes acted on the word of
informers and were hugely feared
→ A military uprising against Nicholas I rule in December 1825 encouraged him to follow a path
of repression, and he deliberately sought to distance Russia from the west where the liberal
ideas he most feared were spreading. He tightened censorship and set up the secret police
→ Russia was the only European country to not have a parliament by 1900 – more difficult to
make a decision and control the vast country
,The economic situation:
→ Alexander II came to throne in 1855, where Britain, Belgium, France was already well
advanced industrially.
→ Russian economy remained mostly rural with a ratio of 11:1 village to town dwellers,
compared with 2:1 in Britain
→ Russia was economically backwards
→ Although the Russian Empire was vast much of its territory was in hospitable, which meant
both size and climate place severe strains on economic development
→ Although mid 19th century Russia was Europe’s main export of agricultural produce and
possessed vast reserves of timber, coal, oil, gold and other precious metals, much of its
potential remained untapped and communications between the different parts of the
empire were poor
→ Russia’s lack of progress was primarily due to Russia’s commitment to a serf-based economy
→ This inhibited economic development by limiting the forces that drive change, such as wage
earners, markets and entrepreneurs
→ Search for extremely poor and suffered badly - there was a little incentive or opportunity for
them to develop into wage earners
→ In peasant markets money was not the usual form payment; exchanges would take place ‘in
kind’, for example some eggs might be given in return for a length of wool
→ Therefore, money was simply irrelevant for the majority and there was no internal market
demand
→ Many landowners have been forced into debt and had to take up mortgages on estates
which had previously been owned outright by their families
→ Sometimes they even mortgaged their serfs but did not seek alternate ways of making
money because money as such was of little use in Russia’s underdeveloped economy
→ Military used up 45% of the government’s annual expenditure – shows what the leading
powers were focused on and where they directed the money
The Social Context:
→ Russia was largely divided between the privileged land owning elite and the serf majority
→ There was an absence of any coherent middle class as was becoming increasingly dominant
elsewhere in Europe
→ There were a small number of professionals some of whom comprised an educated
‘intelligentsia’ but these were often the sons of nobles
→ Serfs paid direct and indirect taxes to the government, but the nobility and clergy were
exempt from the payment of any direct monetary taxes
→ The main direct tax paid by all except the merchants was the poll-tax which was introduced
in 1719 in order to cover the cost of maintaining Russia’s large army (the serfs also had to
pay obrok tax)
→ In France and Britain 83% of the population was literate Russia was only 28% (education was
behind)
→ In 1855, 85% of Russian’s were peasants
Whilst Russia was still considered a ‘great’ power in Europe because of its size and huge army,
politically, economically and socially it remained undeveloped and ‘backward’ in comparison with
the West. Small changes were taking place, but these had been insufficient to promote extensive
modernisation.
, STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
Political - Tsar was the embodiment God on - An autocratic empire: people had no say
Earth – Russians were his children - The conscripted serfs were forced into service for
- Strong structure – church and 25 years and made to live in a military colony
state were entwined - The huge army and much smaller navy absorbed
- 35-60 nobles specially picked by around 45% of the governments annual spending
the tsar to advise him personally – this much money and yet still lost the Crimean
- Noble’s sense of obligation was War
strong - ‘Police state’ therefore prevented the freedom of
- World’s largest army of 1.5 million speech, freedom of the press and travel abroad
conscripted serfs - Political meetings and strikes were forbidden
- It’s military going into the Crimean - The informers were greatly feared
war were stronger than the - Alexander I never put an advisory representative
Ottoman Empire assembly into practice
- From the Crimean War – Russia had suffered
badly from outdated technology, poor transport
and inadequate leadership – lacked the flexibility
and determination of the smaller French and
British units
Economic - Russia was Europe’s main exporter - Size and climate placed severe strain on
of agricultural produce and economic development
possessed vast reserves of timber, - Economy remained mostly rural with a ratio of
coal, oil, gold and other precious 1:1 village to town dwellers compared to Britain’s
metals 2:1
- Markets existed and were growing - Communications between different parts of the
empire were poor
- Lack of progress primarily because of Russia’s
commitment to a serf-based economy
- This inhibited economic development by limiting
the forces that drive change
- Serfs were poor – starved in the winter
- Money was not the usual form of payment
- Many landowners forced into debt and had to
take out mortgages
Social - Russian society was becoming - Very divided between privileged landowners and
increasingly dominant the serf majority
- Still considered a ‘great’ power in - Small number of professionals (doctors, teachers
Europe because of its size and and lawyers)
huge army - 1855 – legal barriers still limited social mobility
- The nobility and clergy were exempted from the
payment of any direct monetary taxes unlike the
serfs who paid direct and indirect taxes to the
government
- It remained undeveloped and ‘backwards’ – small
changes were taken place, but these had been
insufficient to promote extensive modernisation
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