Care-giver infant interaction:
1. Explain what is meant by interactional synchrony (2 marks)
Mother and infant reflect each other’s actions and do this in a coordinated (synchronised)
way.
2. Explain what is meant by reciprocity (2 marks) A description of how two people
interact. Mother-infant interactions are reciprocal in that both infant and mother respond to
each other’s signals and each elicits a response from each other.
3. Outline research into caregiver-infant interactions (4 marks)
Meltzoff and Moore did research on interactional synchrony. They did this by using an adult to
display one of three gestures or facial expressions, the child’s response was filmed and
observed. An association was found between the adult’s gestures or facial expressions and
the actions of the baby. It is believed that interactional synchrony is important for a
mother-infant attachment. Isabella et al. observed 30 mothers and babies to assess the
degree of synchrony, they also assessed the quality of their attachment. They found that high
levels of synchrony were associated with better quality attachment between the mother and
the infant.
4. Outline the role of the father in attachment (6 marks)
Role of father:
- Before birth, the baby can hear father’s voice through the womb, its heart rate
continues to increase more with father’s voice than mother’s. After birth, the father’s
hormones change to help with fatherhood and prolactin increases (mothering hormone).
Testosterone levels decrease, making them less masculine due to natural selection
- Fathers are more rough and tough with their interactions with babies because the
mother hesitates to do this - allows the child to be more risk-taking and helps learn
boundaries.
- Single fathers are just as capable as women to raise a child but fathers are more
effective as they explain rather than punish. Mothers are often more emotional, and fathers
train the child for the wider world as they promote independence.
- Girls who grew up without a father hit puberty faster than the girls who didn’t, for
self-defence - has a biological and psychological effect
- The quality of a father’s play with the infant was related to the quality of child’s
attachments in adolescence, suggesting fathers have a different role in parenting - one to do
with play and stimulation rather than nurturing the baby.
- The father acts as a as a behavioural and physical model for the daughter’s choice of
romantic partner
,5. Describe and evaluate research into caregiver-infant interactions (16 marks)
Reciprocity is a key part of forming an attachment, especially in their “alert phases” when they
signal for interaction and the mother responds to these ⅓ of the time. From around 3 months,
this interaction tends to be increasingly frequent, Feldman suggests it involves close attention
to each other’s verbal signals and facial expressions. An interaction is reciprocal when each
person responds to the other and elicits a response from them. During childhood, it seems the
baby takes an active role in the interaction, as Brazelton describes this as a dance because it
is just like a couple’s dance where each partner responds to each other’s moves. Brazelton
also suggested that this basic rhythm is an important precursor to later communications. The
regularity of an infant’s signals allows a caregiver to anticipate the infant’s behavior and
respond.
Interactional synchrony is when the mother and the infant reflect both the actions and
emotions of the other and do this in a coordinated (synchronised) way. Meltzoff and Moore
carried out a study into interactional synchrony where an adult displayed 1 of 3 facial
expressions or distinctive gestures. They found an association between the expression or
gesture the adult displayed and the actions the baby displayed. In a later study, Meltzoff and
Moore found this same synchrony in infants only 3 days old - suggesting that this behaviour is
innate. It is believed that interactional synchrony is important for the development of
mother-infant attachment. Isabella et al. observed 30 mothers and infants together and
assessed the degree of synchrony and quality of mother-infant attachment. They found high
levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant attachment..
A lot of research involving observation of interactions between mothers and infants, have
shown the same patterns of interaction. However, what is being observed is merely hand
movements or changes in expression. Therefore, this study lacks external validity because we
are unaware of the infant’s perspective and we are unaware of whether the baby is moving to
interact with the mother or if it was just a coincidence. For example, movements may not be
deliberate and we don’t know if synchrony and reciprocity leads to an attachment.
Abravanel and DeYong found that infants made little response to objects stimulating
movement, showing that the baby knows the robot is inhuman. The baby may not be
interacting with the object because it will not form an attachment, so the baby knows that
passive interaction with the robot is not a useful attachment.
Isabella et al found that more strongly attached infant-caregiver pairs showed greater
interactional synchrony. In addition, Heimann found that infants who demonstrate a lot of
imitation from birth onwards have been found to have a better quality of relationship. This
suggests that there is a different variation and not all babies are as clingy. The theory that the
more attached a baby is to their caregiver is more interactive is unclear in showing whether
the attachment is formed because of interaction or whether interaction leads to more
interaction.
Murray and Trevarthen found that when infants were shown a video tape of their mother,
therefore not responding to their facial and bodily gestures, the result was one of acute
distress. They tried to attract their mothers’ interest but gaining no response, turned away.
, This shows that the baby’s role is active in the interaction and that it is a two-way process. It
also suggests that it is an innate ability to want to interact
Stages of attachment:
1. Outline stages of development as identified by schaffer (4 marks)
Stage one is the Asocial stage where the baby recognises and forms attachment to the carers
around it. The baby’s behaviour towards a non-human object is similar to behaviour towards
humans. The baby shows some preference to familiar adults and is generally happier around
other people. The second stage is the indiscriminate attachment stage when the baby, from
2-7 months, begins to show more observable social behaviour and shows preference to
humans rather than inanimate objects. They accept comfort from anyone and their level of
attachment is the same to everyone. The third is the specific attachment stage when the baby,
from 7 months, forms an attachment to a specific person, most likely the primary attachment
figures (65% the mother) and starts to show signs of separation and stranger anxiety. The
final stage is the multiple attachment stage, where the baby extends this attachment
behaviour to multiple people and so forms secondary attachments. In Schaffer’s study, 29% of
the babies formed secondary attachments one month after forming a specific attachment.
2. Outline one criticism of Schaffer’s stages of attachment (4 marks)
The sample used for this study is from a working-class population and taken in 1960, this
means the study lacks historical validity and population validity. This is because parental care
has changed since the 1960s, as demonstrated by the fact that research shows dads who
choose to stay home and care for families has quadrupled over 25 years, so the data is
outdated. Also, these results may not be generalised to other groups of people e.g. upper
class, lower class, so the findings may be different when tested on different social groups,
decreasing external validity.
3. Evaluate research into multiple attachments (4 marks)
There is conflicting evidence on multiple attachments - some research seems to indicate that
most babies form attachments to a single main carer before they become capable of
developing multiple attachments (Bowlby). Other psychologists believe babies form multiple
attachments from the outset, meaning collectivist cultures allow babies to form multiple
attachments more easily because families are worth together jointly in everything.
Also, it is difficult to measure multiple attachments because a baby getting distressed when an
individual leaves the room doesn't necessarily mean that the individual is a true attachment
figure. Bowlby pointed out that children have playmates as well as attachment figures and
may get distressed when a playmate leaves the room but this does not signify attachment.
This is a problem for Schaffer and Emerson’s stages because their observation does not
leave us a way to distinguish between behaviour shown toward secondary attachment figures
and shown towards playmates.
4. Describe and evaluate Shaffer’s stages of attachment (16 marks)
