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Universiteit Leiden (UL)

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How Children Develop

Summary for Developmental & Educational Psychology (IBP)

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developmental educational psychology ibp

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Developmental Psychology – Chapter 3 – Biology and Behavior (pp.91-126)

Nature and Nurture

19th Century, in England, Francis Galton  talent runs in families, because very close
relatves of an eminent man were more likely to be high achievers than were less close
relatves

John Stuart Mill  Galton´s subjects were similar in eminence because auf environmental
factors (e.g. economic well-being, social status, educaton, etc.)

Gregor Mendel (19th Century) observed distnct paaerns of inheritance in pea plants and
thereby established the modern understanding of how characteristcs are transmiaed from
parent to ofspring

James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin (1950s)  much deeper understanding of
how genetc infuences operate through the identicaton of the structure of the DN , the
basic component of heredity transmission

Genome – the complete set of an organism´s genes – has been mapped, of myriad species of
plants and animals (in 2015, genomes have been sequenced of over 250 animal species)

 lead to innovatons in gene synthesis a method for producing DN
 in 2016 human genome project

Revelatons
 Current estmate of 19.000 protein-coding genes, is far fewer than previous
estmates ranging from 35.000-100.000 genes
 Most of these genes are possessed by all living things and are devoted in decreasing
order
 Development results from the close and contnual interplay of nature and nurture –
genes and experience

Genetc and Environmental Factors

 Genotype – the genetc material an individual inherits
 Phenotype – the observable expression of the genotype, including both body
characteristcs and behavior
 Environment – every aspect of an individual and his/her surroundings other than
genes

1. Parent´s Genotype-Child´s Genotype
 This relaton involves the transmission of genetc material – chromosomes and
genes – from parent to ofspring
 Chromosomes – molecules of DN that transmit genetc informatonn made up of
twisted strands of DN

,  DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) – molecules that carry all the biochemical
instructons involved in the formaton and functoning of an organism
 These instructons are packaged in genes – sectons of chromosomes that are the
basic unit of heredity in all living things (each gene  segment of DN coding for
a speciic protein)
 Genes make up only 2% of the human genomen rest is “junk DN ” important in
infuencing transmission by regulatng the actvity of protein-coding genes
Human Heredity
 excepton  sex cells (gemetes/germ cells) only 23 chromosomes due to cell
division (meiosis)
 each chromosome pair carries genes of the same type, sequences of DN that are
relevant to the same traits
Sex Determinatin
 sex chromosomes – the chromosomes (X and Y) that determine an individual´s
gender
 female 2x X chromosome  division of gametes results in all eggs having X
 male half X, half Y  father determines the sex
 a gene on the Y chromosome encodes the protein that triggers the prenatal
formaton of tests by actvatng genes or other chromosomes  testosterone
Diversity and Individuality
 mutaton – a change in the secton of DN (random, spontaneous errors or caused by
environmental factors)
o if occurring in germ cells origin of many inherited diseases, disorders
o some mutatons provide the basis for evoluton  making individuals more
viable
 randim assirtment of chromosomes in the formaton of egg and sperm (223 or 8.4
million possible combinatons of chromosomes)
 crossing over – the process by which secton of the DN switch from one
chromosome to the othern crossing over promotes variability among individuals
geneti Transmissiin if Disirders
 dominant-recessive paaerns
o e.g. sickle cell anemia (recessive gene disorder), both harmful (if exhibitng
efect) and beneicial (if carrier)
 polygenic inheritance  combinaton of genes lead to heritable traits, such as human
disorders
 sex-linked inheritance  some single-gene disorders are more common in men,
because women can balance deicits out by having two X chromosomes
 chromosomal anomalies  errors in germ cell-division, resultng in a zygote having
either more or fewer complement of chromosomes (e.g. Down-syndrome)
 gene anomalies  e.g. Williams Syndrome (25 genes on chromosome 7)
 Regulator-Gene Defects (controlling expression of other genes)
 Unidentied genetc basis  e.g. dyslexia highly heritable reading disability that
probably stems from a variety of gene-based conditons
2. Child´s Genotype-Child´s Phenotype
 Endophenotypes – intermediate phenotypes, including the brain and nervous
systems, that do not involve overt behavior
Gene expressiin: Develipmental ihanges

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