Study notes from lectures, textbooks and revision videos including sources such as:
AQA Psychology for A Level Year 2 Student Book: 2nd Edition Paperback (21 Sept. 2020) by Cara Flanagan (Author), Matt Jarvis (Author), Rob Liddle (Author)
AQA Psychology for A Level Year 1 & AS - Student Book Pap...
Gender bias:
- Universality; any underlying characteristics of human beings that are capable of
being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. Bias
undermines psychology’s claims to universality (be able to draw conclusions that can
be applied to everyone, anywhere, regardless of time or culture)
- Alpha bias; research that focuses on differences between men and women and
therefore tends to present a view that exaggerates these differences.
1. For example, Freud’s theory of psychosexual development - during the phallic
of develpoment children devlop a desire their opposite sex parent, in boys this
creates castration anxiety which is resolved when the boy ifentdies with his
father, but for girls this identification is claimed to be weaker meaning her
superego is weaker, this assumes women are morally inferior to men.
2. Alpha bias can favour women (gynocentrism) - Chodorow suggested that
daughters and mothers have a greater connectedness than sons and mothers
because of biological similarities, therefore annoying women to develop better
abilities to bond with others and empathise.
- Beta bias; research that focuses on similarities between men and women therefore
tends to present a view that ignores or minimises differences.
1. Usually occurs when it is assumed that research findings apply to men and
women equally even when women have been excluded from the research
process.
2. For example the fight or flight response research - biological research has
generally favoured using male animals because female behaviour is affected
by hormonal changes, this ignores any possible differences, eg it assumes
that males and females respond to threatening situations with fight or flight.
3. Taylor claimed that women could have a different response to threatening
situations - Tend and Befriend response. Oxytocin (‘love’ hormone) is more
plentiful in women and it seems that women respond to stress by increasing
oxytocin production, this reduces the fight or flight response.
4. Minimising gender differences may result in misrepresentation of women's
behaviour.
- Gender bias; when considering human behaviour, bias is a tendency to treat one
individual or group in a different way from others. In the context of gender bias,
psychological research or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent
the experience and behaviour of men or women (usually women)
- Androcentrism; male-centred, when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male
standard (meaning that female behaviour is often judged to be ‘abnormal’ or
‘deficient’ by comparison). Alpha and beta bias are consequences of androcentrism.
1. American psychological association - published a list of 100 most influential
psychologists, only 6 were women. This suggests psychology has traditionally
been a subject by men, for men, about men (an androcentric perspective)
2. Brescoll and Uhlmann - Feminists have objected to the diagnostic category of
premenstrual syndrome which medicalises women's emotions, like anger, by
explaining it in hormonal terms. Whereas mens anger is often seen as a
rational response to external pressures.
- Lack of women in senior roles in psychological research; sexism within the research
process may lead to an imbalance of research questions which truly reflects both
genders equally. For example there is a bias towards publication of research
, conducted by males, this means male interpretation is at the forefront of conclusions.
Laboratory experiments, which are often seen as the cornerstone of ‘scientific’
enquiry may further disadvantage women; female participants are placed in an
inequitable relationship with a usually male researcher who has the power to label
them unreasonable and unable to complete complex tasks. This means psychology
may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory
and research
- Misleading assumptions of female behaviour; using research which has been
acquired at an alpha level can lead to misleading assumptions. For example PMS
has been added to the DSM has led to stereotyping and trivialising women’s
emotions which has led further to reductionism as it clarified it as biological rather
than social or rational. These overstated differences have wide implications for
women, for example Tim Hunt who believes women and men should have separate
labs as ‘women will fall in love with the men and then cry when criticised by them’.
Evidencing the belief that women are less professional than men in the workplace.
- Feminist criteria; a positive of understanding gender bias is that feminists have
suggested a number of criteria that should be adhered to in order to avoid bias. This
includes involving women in studies within meaningful real-life contexts and
genuinely participating in research rather than just being objects of the study, also
creating diversity within groups of women rather than just forming comparison
between men and women, and also putting greater emphasis on collaborative
research which collects qualitative data rather than quantitative. This should reduce
investigator bias and highlight that female stereotypes do not apply to all women and
collaborative research allows for unexpected findings (due to questions not being
fixed in advance) therefore leading to a fairer representation of women's experience
and behaviour. This means psychology currently may be creating bias in theory and
research.
- Evaluation key names;
1. Maccoby and Jacklin claimed difference in verbal ability between men and
women hardwired before birth, Joel et al used brain scanning and found no
differences in brain structure or processing
2. Ingalhalikar claimed the stereotype that women are better at multitasking has
some truth as better connections between hemispheres in the female brain.
3. Murphy found lecturers in psychology are more likely to be men despite
female majority in the undergraduate study
4. Nicolson claimed a male researcher may expect women to be irrational and
unable to complete complex tasks
5. Formanowicz found research on gender bias is funded less often and is
published by less prestigious journals.
6. Tavris claimed gender biased research creates misleading assumptions
about female behaviour which makes ‘it become normal for women to feel
abnormal’
- Evaluation;
1. One of the main limitations of psychological research is the issues of gender
bias often go unchallenged. For example Darwin’s theory of sexual selection
suggests women are selective in terms of male selection, These views have
only recently been challenged by DNA evidence suggesting that women are
equally as competitive as men when the need arises. This highlights the
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