SUPERPOWERS
7.1A: Superpowers, emerging and regional powers can be defined using contrasting characteristics (economic,
political, military, cultural, demographic and access to natural resources.)
A superpower is a country with the ability to project its dominating power and influence globally e.g. the US
An emerging superpower is a country with a large role with one or more superpower characteristics, and growing
influence e.g. China, Brazil, India and Russia
Regional powers can project dominating power and influence over other countries within the continent or region
e.g. UK, Germany and France within Europe/ Saudi Arabia and Iran in the Middle East/ and South Africa and Nigeria
in Africa
Characteristics of Superpowers
1) Economic:
Large GDP, high % of international trade, currency used as reserve currency
A large GDP creates influence as a potential market and as the home of TNCs which can create FDI
Underpins the other 5 characteristics
USA has the world’s largest total GDP - $18.5 trillion
2) Political:
The ability to influence the policies of other countries through the dominance of negotiations (both
bilaterally and through international organisations)
Many international organisations do not equally weight members; voting power may be determined by
economic contribution, historical role in founding of the organisation (UN), population etc. Often due to
dominance in other characteristics (large economy gives it power in trade talks, military power can make
countries a threat – giving them political power)
3) Military:
Military power with a global reach means they can be used to achieve geopolitical goals e.g. global
influence through navy and drone, missile and satellite technology
Indicators of power; army size, defence spending, nuclear weapons, inter-continental ballistic missiles,
blue water navy, being a major arms exporter, presence in/leading international military organisation
Dependent on demographic power and economic budget (number of military personnel that can be
deployed and budget for investment in military technology)
Russia has the most active nuclear warheads but the US has the most powerful military according to the
Global Firepower’s comprehensive military index
4) Cultural:
The ability to influence the beliefs, values, ideology and way of life in other countries
Achieved through dominance of media (films, internet, news), TNCs or migrants introducing cultural
products (food, clothing, music, religion) and imposition of viewpoint in international agreements
Indicators – global spread of music, fashion, food, language, religion
The US has the highest percentage of world’s 20 largest TNCs (27%) and over 44,000 Hollywood movies.
Though there has been around 140,000 Bollywood/Indian films, Hollywood films are more influential
5) Demographic:
A large population means a large diaspora and workers at TNCs
Assists economic power through a large market and economies of scale (so more profit)
However, too large a population can lead to too large a demand on resources
China has the largest population of 1.4 billion, followed by India with 1.38 billion
6) Resources:
Control of access to physical resources: e.g. energy, minerals
Provides inputs for economic growth as they can be exported at high price (meaning economic power)
e.g. oil is top export over 50 nations
,7.1B: Mechanisms of maintaining power sit on a spectrum from 'hard' to 'soft' power, which vary in their
effectiveness.
The political scientist Joseph Nye of Harvard University coined the terms hard and soft power in 1990, arguing that in
the 21st century, the most successful countries are those that combine hard and soft power into smart power (a
‘carrot and stick’ approach)
Hard Power
Process of using military and economic influence (trade deals, sanctions) to force a country to act in a particular way
- Hard power (threats of force or military action) can get results, but it’s expensive and risky
- Others may view military action as unnecessary or illegal, so the aggressor may lose allies and moral
authority - such as Russia annexing Crimea in 2014 leading to Russia’s removal from G8
- Examples of hard power include the US’s 1991 organised military campaign to expel Iraqi forces that had
invaded Kuwait in the First Gulf War, and its invasion of Iraq in the Second Gulf War when economic
sanctions (soft power) failed to persuade President Saddam Hussein to change policy
Soft Power
Most subtle persuasion of countries to act in a particular way, on the basis that the persuader is respected and
appealing. It includes political persuasion (diplomacy) and cultural influence. International rankings of soft power,
such as by the Monocle magazine, usually place the USA, UK, France and Germany top of the annual rankings
(Western liberal democracies who have usually held hard power over many countries before)
- Soft power relies on a country having a respected culture, values and politics, which may or may not be
enough to persuade countries
- It is low cost (as it is about creating alliances and relations, which can spread to other countries) but is
entirely reliant on perceptions of the country, and is perhaps routed in the country’s hard power potential
- E.g. the Soviet Union competed with the US for influence throughout the cold war, engaging in a broad
campaign to convince the world of the attractiveness of its Communist system with a large public diplomacy
program to promote their culture, disseminating information about the West and sponsoring youth
organisations and peace protests. However, its closed system and lack of popular culture impeded its ability
to compete with the US in soft power.
- The US and Europe have consistently been sources of soft power, with European culture, art, literature, food
and fashion being global magnets (more than 5 billion pizzas are sold worldwide each year, and Harry Potter
was translated into over 76 languages). The US also has the second largest diplomatic network in the world,
the largest number of foreign journalists based in the country and is the most popular destination for
international students. However, Europeans’ love of sport has enhanced their soft power globally (with
World Cup football and Cricket World Cup) whereas the primary sports in the US like American Football and
baseball are largely unpopular in the world.
- Emerging powers also demonstrate soft power, with India’s cultural influence spreading through religion
(birthplace of four of the world’s major religions) particularly in East and Southeast Asia, with the Chinese
Ambassador to the US Hu Shih stating that ‘India conquered and dominated China culturally for 20 centuries
without ever having to send a single soldier across her border’, with the origins of the numbering system and
other mathematic foundations originating in Ancient India before being brought by the Arabians to the West
- China also is the most popular country in Asia for international students, having the largest diplomatic
network and ranking 2nd out of 20 nations in the Elcano Global Presence Report for 2018. It exerts soft power
through foreign aid and development in China, giving heath and humanitarian assistance in Africa (teaching
Mandarin in 50 South African high schools)
7.1C: The relative importance of these characteristics (7A) and mechanisms (hard and soft power, 7B) for
maintaining power has changed over time. (Mackinder's geo-strategic location theory.)
, Importance of Superpower Characteristics over time
In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the idea that power came from controlling vast land areas was
important. In 1904, the British geographer Halford Mackinder produced an influential geo-strategic location theory
called the Heartland theory. It states that the world island of Europe, Asia and Africa contains most of the world’s
natural resources. The Heartland is an area of central Asia, bordered by the Himalayas, the Russian steppes and the
Arctic. This is very hard to invade, because of physical barriers in the way. It is a powerbase which allows control of
the whole island. The Heartland Theory had persuaded the US, UK and other European countries that Russia needed
to be ‘contained’ to prevent its takeover of land, and also reinforced the idea that control of physical resources
(land, mineral wealth) was important.
However in the 21st Century, these ideas seem outdated. Modern military technology (inter-continental ballistic
missiles, drones, aircraft carriers) can hit deep inside another country’s territory so size of a territory is no longer a
protection. Physical resources are traded internationally so there is much less need to have them domestically
(although countries with the resources have power to export them).
Hard v Soft Power
The relative importance of different forms of power has changed over time. In the past, military force and hard
power were the common mechanisms for achieving and maintaining power. This can be evidenced by the British
Empire using the East India Company and Royal Navy to establish control over India, with the country becoming the
‘Jewel in the Crown’ and was considered the most important source of Britain’s strength. Soft power has now
become more common as a way of gaining influence and maintaining power, by creating economic and political
alliances, especially as hard power is seen as more immoral and unnecessary in a globalised world where
relationships are important. War and conflict are generally seen as abnormal now, whereas in the past they were
accepted ways of gaining power. However hard power still exists to enforce dominating perspective/ideas e.g. in
1991 and 2003 the USA invaded Iraq partly to secure oil supplies, and Russia invaded Georgia and Crimea, claiming
to be protecting ethnic Russians.
7.2A: The maintenance of power during the imperial period by direct colonial control. (British empire, multipolar
world 1919-1939)
The period from 1500 to 1950 (specifically from 1919 to 1939) was an imperial era (dominated by empires).
European powers (Spain, Portugal, Britain, France and Germany) conquered land in the Americas, Africa and Asia
and built empires that directly controlled territories. It was a multipolar world, where the distribution of power lied
in more than two nation-states with an equal amount of military/cultural/economic power.
The development of empires relied on:
Powerful navies to transport soldiers and equipment to areas of potential conquest, and then protect
sea-routes and coastlines from enemies
Large and advanced armed forces to conquer territory and then control it
Businesses, often government owned, to exploit resources in the conquered territories by mining (gold,
tin) and plantation farming (rubber, tea, coffee)
Fleet of merchant ships, protected by navy, to transport goods back to home country
People from home country to act as the government and civil service to run colonies
The most famous example of such colonialism is the British Empire; it reached its peak in 1920 when it controlled
24% of land globally. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people and was described as ‘the empire
on which the sun never sets’. The reason for Britain’s success lied in multiple factors; the privatisation of many
industries (like the East India Company) meant that the taxes and economic status of Britain quickly rose, introduced
legislation to assert British rule over all colonies (taking many of the resources and capital from its colonies).
Empires ended in the period 1950 to 1970. European countries gave independence to their colonies because the cost
of maintaining them was too high as Europe was in debt in the rebuilding after WW2. However, certain colonial
