Government
● Henry VII
○ Conciliar government. Parliament was not central to government. Called 7 times, 5 in the first half of his reign.
■ Main function was to grant extraordinary revenue.
■ Henry had an effective relationship with them.
■ Frequently passed Acts of Attainders, retaining policies.
○ Personal monarchy → creation of the Privy Chamber due to his paranoia around security.
■ Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber included 7 men of legal training.
○ Regional government: Howard up north, Poynings in Ireland.
○ Local government: sheriffs for peacekeeping, JPs helped govern and dispense justice.
● Henry VIII
○ Fluctuations between ruling by council and by ministers.
■ Wolsey from 1514: complemented king’s ‘hands-off’ approach.
■ Cromwell dominated in 1530s.
■ Major reform of the Privy Council: 20 men in charge of day-to-day running of government.
○ Function of Parliament remained the same.
■ Wolsey only used it once in 1523.
■ Cromwell exploited Parliament much more.
■ Money required for expensive foreign policy and establishing royal supremacy.
○ Role of Privy Chamber extended.
■ Henry surrounded himself with like-minded courtiers.
■ Wolsey unsuccessfully tried to neutralise this in 1519.
○ Regional government:
■ 1536 Act brought Wales under same legal jurisdiction as England.
■ Council of North became permanent body following Pilgrimage of Grace.
○ Local government: increase in number of JPs, increasingly carried by laymen not clergymen.
● Edward VI
○ Regency Council → run by protectorate.
■ Somerset: divide and rule. Governed with his own household. Policy failings. Deterioration of power following
1549 rebellions + arrogance = coup.
■ Northumberland: more politically talented → achieved relative political/economic stability. Dampened rebellion
→ restored rural orderRuled as Lord President.
○ Frequent Parliaments continued. Used to pass religious laws.
■ 1551, only year without a session.
○ Somerset appointed Stanhope as Chief Gentleman. Privy Chamber resentment toward protectorate → arrest of
Southampton.
○ Regional government: resentment against taxation for war with France. Privy Councillors advocated peace for stability
and control. Local government: Northumberland improved communication between the centre and Shires. Lord
Lieutenants made permanent. Local councils to report to Council.
● Mary I
○ Privy Council continued to be centre of admin.
■ Criticism: too large, factional rivalry.
■ Rivalry between Catholic and moderate Councillors. Gardiner vs. Paget.
■ Mary showed no confidence in Council.
○ Mary sometimes faced opposition from Parliament regarding religious matters later in the reign.
○ Privy Chamber: like-minded Catholics. Privy Council controlled regions through laws.
○ Local government remained unchanged.
● Elizabeth I
○ Privy Council reduced in size.
■ Balance of Mary’s and own councillors.
■ Factional rivalries reduced → no single member had complete control over patronage.
■ Declined in 1590s: Cecil vs. Essex.
○ Parliament was occasional: 13 times.
■ E1 asserted her royal prerogative. Royal veto = final say.
■ Often sensitive when discussing succession.
■ Often had to be persuaded to call Parliament.
○ Privy Chamber became less influential as Gentlemen lost some rights of access to E1.
■ Creation of Presence Chamber.
○ Council of the North remained powerful. Trend towards appointing JPs continued. Didn’t necessarily make local
government more effective.
, Foreign Policy
Henry VII - largely successful
● Aims: dynastic recognition, national security, trade.
● France: successful
○ Treaty of Redon, 1489: army to defend Brittant against French; geography → threat.
○ Marriage by Proxy between Anne and Max. ended → married to Charles VIII.
○ Charles more interested in invading Italy → Treaty of Etaples, 1492 = withdrew support for Warbeck + £5k pension.
● Scotland: successful
○ 1495: James IV offered hospitality to Warbeck.
○ Encouraged him in aristocratic marriage + 1496 rebellion → Cornish Rebellion, 1497.
○ Treaty of Ayton → Warbeck executed, 1499 → Treaty of Perpetual Peace, 1502 = marriage between James and
Margaret.
● Spain: somewhat successful
○ Treaty of Medina del Campo, 1489 = mutual protection.
○ Marriage between Arthur and Catherine, 1501. Ferdinand reluctant with Warbeck’s threat. Arthur died 1502, declined
proposed marriage between Henry and Catherine, but H7 lost interest when Isabella died in 1504.
○ Treaty of Windsor, 1506: Intercursus Malus argued favourable trade for English, but never came to fruition.
○ Philip died → Juana went mad → H7 left diplomatically isolated when Ferdinand became regent of Castile.
● Burgundy: successful
○ Bulk of English ports went through Burgundy’s jurisdiction, but this was complicated by Margaret being a Yorkist.
○ Trade embargo: Philip and Maximilian gave support to Warbeck. Sacrificed interests of London merchants.
○ Intercursus Malus → Maximilian and Philip agreed to hand over Suffolk.
Henry VIII - largely unsuccessful
● Aims: warrior king, establish power in Europe through marriage, interests of nobility
● France: unsuccessful
○ 1512 invasion: 10k men to France.
■ 1513 Battle of Spurs → Tournai captured but sold back.
○ Renegotiated lost and recaptured by Wolsey → negotiated marriage between Mary and Louis XII.
○ Treaty of Cambrai 1517 between France and HRE left H8 isolated. Wolsey ended isolation with Treaty of London 1518
→ became Treaty of Perpetual Peace between England, Spain, France, and HRE.
○ Field of Cloth of Gold, 1520: displayed new-found friendship between England and France.
○ Treaty of Bruges, 1521: conflict between Francis and Charles, Wolsey sides with Charles.
○ 1522/23 invasion: following French defeat at Battle of Pavia 1525, H8 foolishly suggested he and Charles jointly invade
northern France → failure
■ H8 and Wolsey’s weak position → anti-Imperial Treaty of Amiens, 1527, failed attempt at trade embargo on
Burgundy → unemployment in England + Wolsey’s downfall.
○ 1544 invasion: agreed alliance with Charles. Besieged Boulogne, never recaptured. English defeat at Battle of Ancrum
Moor, 1545. Charles made separate peace treaty with Francis I. Peace agreed in 1546, as neither side could afford
conflict.
● Scotland: largely unsuccessful
○ Battle of Flodden, 1513 → James IV killed = English victory. H8 failed to take advantage of Scottish weakness: infant
King James V.
○ Francis I undermined Anglo-Scottish relations: Albany (French) = heir presumptive.
○ 1542 invasion. Death of James V → success at Battle of Solway Moss, but H8 didn’t invade.
○ Treaty of Greenwich, 1543: formally betrothed Edward VI and infant Mary.
■ Earl of Arran refused to ratify the treaty → raids on Edinburgh.
● Spain: unsuccessful
○ 1512: allies with the English in war with France, but Ferdinand’s lack of support for the English → disaster at Gascony.
Annulment to Catherin of Aragon → worsened relations
○ Ferdinand was succeeded by Charles I, who became Holy Roman Emperor.
● Burgundy: largely unsuccessful
○ See France^^
○ Henry supported the anti-Imperial League of Cognac in 1526, created to counterbalance the excessive power of
Charles. Henry's pursuit of divorce → worsened relations with Charles.
○ Failed attempt at Burgundian trade embargo → caused unemployment.
○ Peace of Cambrai, 1529 → Henry’s attempts at seeking a divorce = doomed.
○ Pressures reduced with deaths of Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn.
○ Treaty of Nice, 1538: Charles and Francis agreed to sever connections with England → weakened H8’s position.
○ Pope Paul III tried to rouse a Catholic crusade against H8.
