.. Bad a look 0
esign tr ·ggers 1
Nearly there
Design triggers prompt the des~n oLnew or improved products or proce.sses. They differ between
D Nailed it! D B ad a look 0 Nearly there
_es ·gn trigge s 2
D Nailed it!
__________________ N_ew__or. improve.cLdesiqns__aretriqqeredJn.J11any__ interconnecting_way.s.. _inclu.dinq __ by__market:re.search..
0
•
market-led and technology-led companies, although in reality companies seldom use a single approach. problems with a product or process, concerns about sustainability or the discovery of a risk.
Market pull Technology push Market research Product testin13
MarK.et.:.ar'iven-companies are constantly Market research-ts---essentiaHor-market- -- - Focus 13roups
TechnoTogy.:.crriven companies cOncentrate- led companies to establish the views of
researchinq their customers• needs and what on research and development to push the
their competitors are offering. Their aim is consumers- ana find wnere demand for a
boundaries of what is possible inconsumer
to follow market trends and _9~vel~ riew or product or service exists. The resu~s of
prc;:>c::lµ_9_t!:kTl:!~y._t~nc::l_ n_gt_tgb~y_~-~n __~_?._t.~!?lJ?l:!~c::I .. - consumer
improved products to fill an identified need. market and so are not guaranteed success.
research are used to both triqger and Interviews ----Who/what is behaviour
inform the desi<an of new products or - inv0-lved--in---market
tlowever,when--they-qet-it riqht it can- be -- studies
The design and operation of online prompt alterations to existing ones.
revolutionary. research?
supermarket delivery se vices was Aiialys1~
triggered by market pull for a service. The inclusion of the first digital camera competitor's
--- --·pro-duct~ ---·-· ·
-.. _- in a mobile phone was triggered by
technology push in a product.
-·--Fll··
Analysin13 market trends
-------------------- sustainability--·
Online communities
Demand -Performance -issues--· -
Profitability
Demand ~s the number of products that could be ____f.'ed.orm~11~§_l!2~1.1e_~__.w1th__ g __J2.r.od_u_e_t;__ Q_r_prQc~~-~ ··---···-5.om~time_!2_p_re_!2~HJ.re__ frqm__em.ti.ro!'.l_rnent~_l!~---------------·--·
f'rofitability is basically the difference between
sold Into a particular market. that results in complaints or poor customer conscious consumers will drive a product
the cost of making a product and the price it
_:... feedbackcan.aiso..tr-iqqer---a-- rede~fl-. ·-··-·-----rede5iql'l.-A~y--i11crease--in-- 5\JstairnW-iUty--or.. ---···-·······
• Mark.et-led companies try to- measure demand can trren be sold for. To maintain o r increase
through research. For example: decrease in carbon footprint will make a product
p rofitability desiqners are often asked to
·· more attractive-to-this--targe and growing--gro11p -·
• Technology-led companies hope to stimulate redeSi<EJn -a product Or-service fo reduce • Computer hardware manufacturers continually
of customers.
demand by launching innovative new products. manufacturing or runnin<EJ costs. strive to improve the performance of their
products in order to cope with the demands of for example, cars can be redesigned to:
new so~ware applications.
-------
• use energy efficient technologies to decrease
··--- -----------l-n-n-0-v-ati0-n-----------
--------------- Customer expectations for mobile phones to fuel consumption
-·- operate for tong pe-r ioas t:;etween charge_s_--- ---- -------- -· -· -- reduce carb-orr-emissions--
has led to the rapid development of battery • minimise the generation of other pollutants.
technology over the past 15 years. Product design also can be affected by
Innovation is the key to the success of both
-teqisl-ation that Is passed to limit-pollution and
technology- and market-led companies.
protect the environment.
It is required to ensure that products
remain competitive. The use of emerging
technology or just approaching a problem ---- --- --- Designing-out-risk----
in an unconventional way can transform the
5ometimes design changes are triggered
---------;---periermance-of-aR--e*istinq---product-oF -tead-----
in response to an incident, accident or the
to new products with better performance for
___________,___ less-·cost-. ---- --- ---------- ------- discovery of IQ~'!g-term health implications
involved in using a product. for example,
A series of innovations in bicycle design __in .the 1990s caren'3ines_.were redesiqned
helped maintain the dominance of Great to run on lead-free petrol. This change was By 1992 all new
Britain's cycling squad at Rio 201G. -trigqered-whe11- -it--was-·proven--thatexpost1re----- cars had redesigned
to lead in exhaust qases posed a potentially cylinder heads with
··-· -------- ··s-erie>u5 -long:oterm-health--ri5-K.---
hardened valve
------------------~-------------------- seats to allow them
to run safely on
unleaded petrol - a
Now try this Now try this direct response to
concerns about a
You have been asked to design a child's toy. serious health risk.
Explain whether the following rely mostly on market pull or technology push to trigger design activities:
Explain one potential risk that must be taken into account in each of the following areas:
1 high street clothes retailer
1 the materials used
2 Formula 1 team
2 the form (or shape) of the toy
3 mobile phone manufacturer.
3 the function (or how it works).
96 97
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•
ed c1ng
0
energ:y
Nearly there 0 Nailed it!
Desi.gners are al~ays . under .pressure .to redu.ce the.amount of energy used both. in. the .. design process
and m the operation of a product during its life cycle.
0 Bad a look 0
Byl>ri s an energy recovery
s ste
Nearly there 0 Nailed it! 0
•
Reduce energy usage in the Recent innovations in vehicle technology have led to an increase in the number of cars using hybrid
-design ··process c::oml::>iried pm_
Vf::I' units <Jl'lc::l _t::nt::rgy re:c::o11e_ry ?yste1T1:., This makes them more efficient and reduces emissions.
Taking adv;:intage of the latest :technology Gan _ Byb..ridvehicle.$. _ _
help reduce the time, resources and energy
Hybrid vehicles offset the disadvantages of using either electric
taken to desiqn new products.
·motors-·or ·internat ·combustion··enqines ·on·their ·own;···
Enercay efficient desican can be the direct
• With just an electric motor you could drive with zero local
result of:
emissions but the distance travelled is limited by the size of
• c<:>mputer _?imulations yQ_l,lL_~(;'ltt;_~ri_~~.._the time needed to recharg~ tb.~rn Cirl~_ JI:!~
• 30 CAD modelling limited number of charging points available. This is best suited to
• rapid prototyping -- ... low. speed,.. shortjourneys.in towns and cities.
• online collaboration The Boeing 777 was the first airliner t o be built and tested in a virtual • With just an internal combustion encaine you would contribute
---·· to·toca1-·poltotion·tevets·bat ·yoo·carr travet·greater distances· In 1997 the Toyota Prius was
• virtual design environments. desi gn envi ronment. A worlawide te<:i m created and assembled every
and it only takes a few minutes to refuel at one of many petrol the first mainstream commercially
com ponent and simula ed the operation of an entire vi rtual airli ner before
sbiti0n5 to allow exteriGiea Journeys. rfiis best suits hii:Jh speed; · available hybrid car. The Prius is a
any real ma nufacturing b gan. This ed to .arge energy savings during the
long journeys out of town and on motorways. parallel hybrid in which an electric
design process.
motor and a conventional engine
The challenge for designers and engineers is to combine these
can be used either together or
Reduce ·e nergy usage -during operation - -- -- - - technolo~ies in-St1Cha way t-hat· the driver qets a -seemless-driviflg -
individually, depending on the driving
experience and the best possible fuel efficiency from the vehicle.
Reducing the . energy .consumed when .a .product.is in use _can: __ conditions and power requirements.
• reduce operating costs
• meet environmental obligations .. Energy recovery .sys.t ems(ERS)
• increase sales to environmentally conscious consumers. The energy recovery system is one of the key aspects of hybrid vehicles.
-····- ·1·n- .a-··c;e>riven£IO'ria1·e:ar; -- wheri -you···r1eecfb5 .5Iow --aown-aric:ropera£e·-uie-&raKe5~ - "'"etic--eriergy --i5-
As a designer you need to be aware of areas where energy savings might be possible.
Some of these are outtined befow. -- - -- - ----- - - - - converted to heat, \,V~i~h is_v.ic;i~~e;:c:I in _!~~_i:,r<i_1ki_11_g ~y~t~'!' .<J~Y<:)_l)_ slow down.
• In contrast, energy recovery systems slow the car by converting kinetic energy into electricity,
Increase &ye.tem_ efficiency - Use_ lncr~eed co"1,POnent efficiency - Energy which. is--then -.stored .. in on-board batteries untit-it'sneeded. Little, if any;·-enef'g.y--is-wasteGl -at>- --
compatible components and subsystems efficient components can make a big
that: work together to minimise over;;ill
heat. On journeys in towns where heavy traffic often means stopping and starting repeatedly,
difference to the overall system effic;iency;
energy consumption; e.g. hybrid cars use -- --- ---- -energy sa'7in'35 from-these systems can be stgnificant.
e.g. LEDs require significantly Jess
a C:C>111binati9n of iJ)?t::tr:ol enginE;: ancj an _ • The impact of ERS has also been seen in motorsport.
electric motor to achieve high efficiencies
-Reduci-n g electrical power than conventional filament
--···- fhe-iate5FER5 -5Y5tem-5--li5ecfii1·-i=raiiow--enqlne5--te> -
Ener~ store
lamps to achieve the same light output.
with n9 Joss of_performance_, energy gen~r.ate th~ _
?.ame pow~r:._c;is t .h eir
consumption predecessors but using 35% less fuel.
ERS systems in F1
Rsducin-a product mae& - The heavier an object, the more Reducing product dimeneion& - Commercial
energy is required to move it. Reducing mass makes products motorsport are able to
pressures for smaller products often lead to the
easier to move ; e .g . f1 cars use carbon fibre composite convert kinetic energy
miniaturisation of component5. Smaller components
technology to make them extremely llcjht and so maximise the tend to also use less power; e.g. miniature surface recovered from braking
acceleration possible from the engine power available. mount electronic components consume significantly and heat energy recovered
less electrical power tlian an equivalent coiiiientfonal from the engine exhaust
through-hole component. into electricity. This is
stored for use to boost
-------------------
Now try this
the available power when
overtaking. Cutting edge
technology developed in F1
normally trickles down into
conventional high-cost then
Explain two reasons why using a virtual design
low-cost vehicles.
environment will save energy when developing a
complex product, such as an aircraft.
Surface mount tec hnology (SMTJ electron ic
components are really small.
Describe two advantages of using a vehicle that uses hybrid technology.
98 99
,-- Rad a look
s stainability an cost over
D Nearly there 0 Nailed it! D B ad a look
Bigh-Yalue
0 Nearly there
an acturi g an
0 Nailed it! 0
•
-
.
ro uc life cycle es1• ning out r ·sk
At the design stage it is important to consider the potential risks that the manufacture or use of your
As a desig_ner you have a responsibility to consider the sustainability and costs of designing and
product might pose and whether hicah-value manufacturinca techniques will be employed.
manufacturing a product. These should be considered over the entire product life cycle.
- The product life cycle Designing out risk !or employees
Good design should eliminate all types of risk to the employees who are manufacturing your products.
Desi-an - - - - - ------> Raw material
• Ensure that the materials and processes you specify are as safe to use and carry out as possible.
Material Material
disposal recyclin<a extraction For example, water-based paints or powder coating pose a reduced health risk compared to solvent-
in landfill '4 based paints and should be used where possible.
• Ensure that the risks of making mistakes during manufacturinca and assembly are minimised. For
Raw material example, using asymmetric mounting holes will ensure parts can only be assembled in the correct
The product life cycle takes
End of life processin<a orientation. This principle is known in Japan as ' Poke Yoke', which roughly translates as making a
into account all the stages of
process fool proof.
Product life cycle
l
Manufacturin<a
a product's life from design
through to end of life and
Designing out risk !or customers
material recycling or disposal.
Use/re-use Good design will eliminate any health and safety risk to stakeholders, customers and the end users of
~
Maintenance/
,.. I/ Distributiorv'transportation
your proc;:lucts. This will involve examining the materials used, the form and the function of the product.
For example:
• Food and drink containers should only ever use food-safe materials that won't contaminate their
contents (for example, drinks bottles manufactured from PET thermoplastic polymer).
repair
• Sharp edges or corners on any product should be rounded off to prevent accidental injury.
• The mechanism of a folding chair must· avoid formintg a trapping hazard in which fingers might be caught
Cost reduction over product life Sustainability of product life cycle during operation.
cycle Manufacturers often have both a Iecaal and moral
A slightly more complex o r expensive design or responsibility to make their operations more Commodity and high-value manu!acturing
material specified at the design stage can be sustainable. In addition, commercial pressure
Commodity manufacturinca is characterised by
offset by reduced costs later in the product fife is also exerted by ~ more environmentally
low value and high volume. It uses low technology
cycle. For example, if you design a product so conscious public who demand products with
traditional processes and production methods. Much
that the constituent materials can be separated greater sustainability. For example, most motor
commodity manufacturing has been outsourced to
easily, any additional design and manufacturing manufacturers refurbish and remanufacture used
low-cost countries and emerging economies.
costs will be offset by lower recydlng costs at vehicle components and offer them for sale as
In contrast, hicah-value manufacturinca is
the end of the product's life. replacement parts, instead of sending them for
recycling. characterised by lower volume,_hiqh complexity and
high value. Manufacturing is often dependent on
innovative new processes, manufacturing techniques
and materials driven by investment in research and
development. This can be a very challenging design
The end of the road. VW aim to environment but in fully developed industrial economies Additive manufacturing of titanium brackets
enable 95% of the materials and it is vital for continued growth of domestic used by the aircraft industry has led to reduced
components in the·r vehicles to manufacturing . For example , the manufacture of Airbus resources, lower weight and increased strength.
be recycled or re-manufactured wings in the UK has all the characteristics of high-value It has also increased the cost of the product,
for re-use at end of life. manufacturing. but this is offset easily by savings in fuel.
-
Now try this
Now try this The standard UK mains plug has been in use since the 1940s and has several
safety features built into its design.
1 Describe two features of a plug that have been designed to reduce the
IKEA supply the majority of t heir furniture as flat packs for home assembly.
risk of harm to those using it.
1 Describe one reason why this helps to reduce life cycle costs. 2 Is the production of UK mains plugs an example of commodity or high-
2 Describe one reason why this helps to increase sustainability. value manufacturing?
100 101
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Bad a look 0 Nearly there 0 Nailed it! 0 Had a look 0 Nearly there 0 Nailed it! 0
•
Systems, e u · pment an Syste com ro ses
-·· _Jnvarial:?ly..some ..t.r.ade__ofLor.. c.ompromises__must _be__made ..wh.e .n..integratjnq_all..the_.e(;\u.ipment...req.uired.___ _
interfaces- within a system. Sometimes it is necessary to accept the shortcomings of some elements in order to
. achieve the -t?est overall -system performance.···
Large engineering systems can be broken down I nto individuaTpiec.e 5 of intercon.nected equipment: .
These worLt2gether to perform the function of the system a_? a whole. . -Systems integration ·
The issue of systems integration and how this can often lead to compromise is best illustrated using a
Systems_ Equipment familiar example, in this case, a car.
System is a term used to describe often felJuipment is a term used to describe the individual
lar~e - -Mld - comp!ex
a-s sembHes--or macliines - .. ·· -interconnected-elements-that-make-vp a-larqer---- -- Bonding - Physically supportin-a and joining
Cooling - En-aines -aenerate waste heat that must be
t hat depend on the coordinated function system. For example, a robot arm is just one piece t he d ifferent ec:i,uipment in a car is done
.....dissipat&i.to .. pre.tent..over.heatiru3._Car.s..ther.efol"e .. -
almost exclusively by spot weldin<a and the
· ·-of interconnected smaller subsystems and of equipment that miqht be found on- an automated - incorporate additional coolin-a equipment in the form
use of fasteners, such as screws, clips,
individual pieces of equipment. Examples production line. Several of these working in .. _of..radiatQ~_t_o._QYer.c.ame.. t.hi::;.p...rQJ:llem•.J-to.w.e.ver•........
and nuts and bolts. IGteally the body shell
include an aeroplane, an automated conjunction with.. other eqi:iipmeiit, -sensors ana control · the waste heat from the engine can be turned into
i3n".1 ..P<ln~I~ _IAf()IJ_l".1 b~J;:>f::rrn.lil1~11tly_ welded
production line or a ca_i::. an c::>F'P9.~!ll1iD'..l?Y.r:~ir:~qj_1JgitJc::> heaters in the
. _tech~_c::>lc::>~Y.. f11i~h~--~f:: ..~~qui~~c;f in_.=i_ (;?f11F'I~~-~ - ~>'~~~rTl'..... to-aether to provide maximum ri<aidity;
passen-aer compartment when required.
however, removable access panels are often
required to allow the repair and servicin-a of
Interfaces other equipment-leve l compone nts.
The types ·of connections or interfaces between equipment in· a system· depend on ·the required System
complexity, flexibility, intelligence and the technology employed. Often a range of technologies can be Lc>:cat.ion (for optimum ~uipment - - - - - l integration Centre of gravity - To ensure
· ---usec:rrr1-tne same system:· For·iffstaii.ce, a··c:::ar frltegrates·mechanicar;e1eetrrc:a-r; nyaraunc~ pfreumatic afrd performance) - To allow a radiator to compromises stability when cornerin-a, the
.. _ fun~ie>ll ~ffic::i~l'.!~_ly ~llc:I pre>0_c;le ~ff~ilf~.. -- centre-of--aravity·in·a ··car--···· ··
microcontroller systems.
en-aine coolin-a it should be placed at
in·a·ca:r···-· should be as low and central
Mechanical - Combinations of levers, linl::a-aes, Electrical - Combinations of relays, connectors and the front of the vehicle in a constant -- as ·pessi"le. -T his -is ·aehieved-
··cable5; -pulleys anc:fijear5 can·proitide ttie ·reqiiked switches wired to-aet-her into electrical-circtJits can flow of cool air. This is true even for at system level by the careful
level of interconnection and control in mechanical provide control in electrical systems. Such systems are mid-en<::iine vehicles where the e n-alne --- positionin-a--0f. -ec:i,uipment-level- ···--
•-~:;:;:·5~u~~~:~s~!~!:.-re (jerieralTy·roi;·ust and · ~~---~/
_·-_-ae_ne
-r-ally-f'Ob1JSt--and--reliable--but -lack-fle.xil:>Hity.---- - is behind the driver. This usually means elements. Therefore, when heavy
Electrical/electronic
fittin-a Io n-a coolant pipework. back to ... equipment such as. the en-aine is
compatibitity- Electrical systems
a
. tiie .en-aine: In f1 , rad iator at the front in standard motor vehicles run on
located at the front of a car it
of the car would ruin its aerodynamics 12 V DC. The -0r k3lnal purpose of is counter balanced by t he fuel
Hydra.ulic/Pneumatic - Combinations tank at the rear. (In motorsport
and, as a compromise, the radiator is a battery was to provide a means
Eqaipn\ent of various valve types connected usin-a
mounted further back and ductin<a or .alLttte_~uip_m.ent,_Jn(;ludin'3 ..the _____ _
-0f startin<a the..en-aine. Modem
interfaces p ipework Into hydraulic./ pneumatic c ircuits
scoops are used t()divert air tnrou~n it cars feature a hu-ae number of
driver, is positioned as low as
regulator on a can provide the rec:i,uired level of control p~~i1'1_~ .J _
to provide coolin-a. ... __othel:"_electrical..and electronic. .. -
steam traction in hydraulic/pneumatic systems. Such
equipment, from radios to
systems are -aenerally robust and reliable
engine - these windscreen wipers . To allow simple
used entirely but ~""_fl&cibHity. equipment inte-aration all these
mechanical al~ run on a 1_2 V supply even if
\ that means includin<a devices within
MicrocontroHerisoftware - The advent of microcontrollers and software-
the equipment to reduce this
controlled systems of electromechanical relays, valves and actuators
volta-ae to malce it compatible with
hav e r evolutionised what is possible when interlacin-a ec:i,uipment: different
their electronic systems.
~es of technol0<3y can be combined in the same system far more simply .
Electronic sensor techno l0<3y, combined with intelli-aent control software,
allows system behaviour t o be changed in real time in response to a ran-ae
of external factors, and software-based controllers prOvide almost infinite
system flexibility. F1 cars have a mid-engine and are extremely low to
the ground in order to optimise the position of the
In c~rs, m~chanical carburettors have been largely replaced by electronic centre of gravity for fast cornering. The radiators are
fuel injection and engine management systems that provide superior positioned in the side pods at either side of the driver.
performance and fuel economy. These can precisely alter the mix of fuel
and air entering the engine in response to a wide range of parameters
mo~itored by the system. They can also be reconfigured to alter the ------------- ---------------
engine performance using a laptop.
For example,
Equipment-level waste heat generated by a car engine provides an opportunity consider how heat
at system level to make use of this elsewhere. from an aircraft
engine can be used
Create a simplified sketch of a small system within your field of study. Describe a different example from within your field of study where waste
For example, sketch the system to de-ice the wings.
Include details of equipment-level components, such as motors or generated at equipment level is put to use elsewhere in the system.
used to operate anti-lock brakes
sensors, and the technology used to connect and control them.
on a motor vehicle.
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