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British Experience of Warfare SUMMARY revision notes
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BRITAIN AND THE FRENCH WARSRelative Strengths: French population twice that of Britain’s, powerful navy. Britain 2nd most urbanised country in Europe, modern economy/fast-developing ind rev. agrarian rev.
sophisticated financial system to back a war effort: Managing national debt through borrowing/selling gov stocks = finance larger scale military expenditure. Income tax 1798,
coalitions – F wars loaned £50 million to allies, further £4.6m Austria.
Also funded Navy – protected maritime trade and colonies inc. Canada and parts of India. Supported overseas campaigns (Peninsular War), blockaded French ports to strangle
trade and protect British commerce. Britain’s RN outnumbered the French. Horatio Nelson – aggressive/iconic commander, influenced French naval strategy, killed at Trafalgar.
Land campaigns – pre-French wars army in a poor state, defeated by America, low morale. Much smaller than conscript French army yet swilling to fight peripheral campaigns
like Pen.
War had contrasting impact on economy: industry grew in sectors – coal, iron, textiles. Cotton exports rose even to France who were supplied with uniforms by B. income tax =
rose food prices and unemployment *jobless men joined army*. Farmers sold home-produced wheat at high prices leading to protectionist Corn Laws of 1815 – ban cheap
imports. Literature – showed effects of war – Charlotte Bronte’s Shirley – impact of war to a cloth-making community.
Wellington – Arthur Wellesley, born Ireland 1769. Purchased commissions. 1809 became Viscount Wellington. ‘Our soldiers are the very scum of the earth and it really is
wonderful that we should have made them into the fine fellow that they are’.
Prelude to Peninsular War – Napoleon began new campaign in Europe 1805. Defeated Austria, Prussia, Russia, considered B. Occupied Iberian Peninsula 1809, thought
Portugal should be ‘wrestled from the influence of England. Portugal = B’s oldest ally. Brother Joseph in charge (nepotism) – dubbed ‘the intruder king’. 9000 British went to
Iberian Peninsular to exploit Joseph’s failures.
Wellington’s Tactics – invasion/retreat, sieges/attrition. Iberian geography, local allies (Portuguese/Spanish and guerillas), tactics, personality. Rearguard action (small force
remains, main army withdraws), train to fire volleys and reload rapidly (Brown Bess – 4 a minute from an expert), position on the reverse slope of a hill – forcing enemy up hill
without protection/easy firing. Wellington’s supply line secure from Lisbon vs French = long across rugged terrain. Firepower = volleyfire = successful against French shock
attack.
Talavera 1809 – Spanish ill-equipped, let down by General Cuesta who failed to appear. 1810 had Portuguese integrated into British army. French casualties 7300 vs British
5400.
Torres Vedras 1810 – to protect supply lines, Wellington built ‘Lines of Torres Vedras’ – massive fortification works across peninsula north of Lisbon. Secure behind them, people
fled = ‘scorched earth’ policy, French harassed by guerillas/cold/hungry soldiers, British could crack down on discipline.
Fuentes de Onoro 1811 – Wellington Portugal → Spain to besiege Almeida. French commander Massena tried to relieve it by attacking them. Lasted 3 days, untried 7th
division in open, used square formation.
Wellington on the offensive: Britain finally not outnumbered. Could enforce a more aggressive approach.
Ciudad Rodrigo & Badajoz – attacked border fortresses here. Weeks of siege work = artillery to blast breaches, hand-to-hand fighting. Thomas Picton helped to restore discipline
– looter flogged not hanged. Wellington showed clemency – seen crying at huge losses (earning respect)
Salamanca and Vitoria – used shields to hide army and took French by surprise. French scattered w heavy losses. Took Madrid, Wellington a national hero.
Hundred Days – Wellington began new campaign after Napoleon re-emerged as emperor of France after exile. Planned to cooperate w Prussians (Blucher).
1815 Quatre Bras and Ligny: attacked at Quatre Bras by Ney but held position. Ligny – Prussians lost to Napoleon and Wellington also withdrew.
June 1815: Waterloo: Battlefield 4 miles long w 3 strongpoints, men placed in all 3. Allies: 68,000 w 156 guns; French 72,000 w 246 guns Napoleons’ problems morning of battle
– unwell, unable to sit for too long, attacking uphill, ground was waterlogged = delays in moving. French began with assault on Hougomount then infantry attack, both repulsed.
French heavy fire caused some Dutch/Belgian units to flee. Tide turns – wellington on the move, Napoleon static, taken ill afternoon w Ney in charge. Wellington moves troops
out of artillery reach – Ney thinks they are retreating and sends ALL cavalry in pursuit. Form squares, volleyfire, Napoleon returns w news that Prussians are about to join.
Marshal Grouchy (30,000 men) supposed to prevent this and failed. Napoleon’s final move to commit his elite guards: young guard to hold the Prussians, old guard veterans to
break the British line. Marched uphill under heavy fire and British broke them. Napoleon escaped to Paris.
Wellington – national hero. Blessed with an iron constitution. Said Napoleon came on in ‘the old fashion’. British soldier ‘scum’ enjoyed a new respect.
Role of Nelson
1792 = 135 ships 133 smaller frigates. 1802 = 202 ships 227 smaller frigates.
Horatio Nelson – joined navy age 12. 1793 commanded HMS Agamemnon. Lost sight in right eye and right arm amputated. Bravery won him loyalty/possibility of pride money,
charismatic, believed in gunnery and boldness, aggressive in his thinking. Intent on destruction of the enemy however keen on prize money too. Discussed plans openly, took
care of crew “band of brothers”.
Start: navy priorities = protect from invasion, protect commerce and interfere with French trade.
Problems at start – logistics strained, poor dockyards, discontents = mutinies e.g. at Spithead, problems of administration and supply, timber shortages.
Naval technology/tactics – ‘coppering’ covering a ship’s wooden hull will copper sheets = faster and more durable. Gunnery – close-range gunnery did terrible damage and key
to success in Trafalgar.
Battle of Trafalgar. 27 vs 33 ships. Nelson and Collingwood led a column each. Broke through to fighting at close quarters, HNS Victory against French Redoubtable – point blank
fire. French lost 490/643 men. Nelson in uniform, short on deck by sniper. Told of victory before death. Aftermath: most ships taken as prizes by British. French hopes of
challenging British naval supremacy shattered. British dominated world maritime trade.
Impact of French Wars on British Economy: Trade – Britain imposed blockades – stopping neutral ships. Economy grew anyway. French ships stopped and searched which
angered Americans who banned trade w Britain. But continued eventually. Exports to Europe almost doubled.
Wages – stagnated in wartime. Each family had a breadwinner. Income tax. War debt £1600 million = income tax and more banks, 600 by end of war.
Farming – agrarian revolution. Corn Laws 1815 protected from cheap imports, more efficient w new technology and selective breeding, enclosure of farmland – large farms
absorbed small farms = boosted output. Shortage of timber threatened war effort.
Industry – war stimulated industrial rev – boom in cotton, coal, iron, steel manufacturing. Textile mills traded w France – uniform.
Impact of new ideas – Luddism – 1812 illegal. 1813 capital offence. Abolition of the slave trade via campaigning.
, CRIMEAN WAR
Outbreak – breakdown of the Vienna system, which hoped to biuld permanent peace. Russia saw territorial gains with
Turkey, the ‘sick man of Europe’ . Britain motivated to stop Russia (balance of power threatened, naval supremacy
over East Mediterranean, India – the jewel of the crown).
Impact of war on British opinion – ‘Britain won without any great sense of triumph’. Criticism – unsatisfactory
supply/performance. Florence Nightingale, Mary Seacole and media revealed hardships.
Compared to French Wars: Style of land warfare hardly changed since French Wars, identical/red uniforms to
Waterloo. First major European battle since Waterloo. Naval supremacy still maintained. BUT new French Minie rifle,
3x range of Russians and more accurate. French now allies. Navy supply modernising slowly.
Battle of the Alma Sep 1854 – Lord Raglan: veteran of Peninsular War, absorbed Wellington’s ideas, widely blamed.
Allies outnumbered Russians but battle was confused. French and British uncoordinated. Raglan told British to lie
down as unsure of French action = more casualties. Highland brigade forced Russians to withdraw but Raglan
indecisive and didn’t pursue them with cavalry. Revealed shortcomings in ally leadership. Had they lost Alma –
Crimea may have ended there.
Began siege works at Balaklava – gave Russians time to prepare defences..
Balaklava Oct 1854 – Russians could not break the ‘thin red line’ and retreated after 2nd failed assault, as 500
highlanders stood ground. Charge of the heavy brigade – 800 strong heavy brigade charged Russians uphill – cavalry
broke through, opened fire and Russians in retreat. Infamous mishap of charge: Lucan received vague orders amidst
no clear view of events which was emblematic of poor communication and planning, VERSUS brave soldiers. 113
dead 134 wounded. Lucan replaced, Raglan blamed.
Siege of Sevastopol – 1854-55. Main objective. Winter 1854-55 worst storms in living memory. Weeks to ship in and
deliver supplies. But improved after. Took Sevastopol in September, went on to capture strongpoints.
Raglan and conduct of war – not afraid to commit men to danger (Alma/Balaklava) vague orders, old school
Wellington. Badly supplied troops.
Florence Nightingale – based in Scutari not Crimea. Army did not prioritise wounded men who helped each other
bizarrely. Reorganised kitchen and improved food, cleaned the ward and washed bed linen, arranged school room
and library. Caring ‘lady with the lamp’ balanced w reputation as a strong administrator. Disagreements with male
doctors. The Times Fund - £30,000 for medical supplies. McNeill-Tulloch report confirmed much of what she said.
Believed in miasma. Pavilion-style hospitals – clean, aerated, fresh sheets. 1859 Notes on Nursing influential –
boosted reputation of nurses from drunk/unprofessional. BUT – impatient/death rate still increased/miasma.
Mary Seacole – born 1805 Jamaica. Mother a ‘doctress’/healer who taught her herbal remedies. Made her own way to
Crimea after several rejections. Set up the British Hotel to enjoy small comforts e.g. blankets. Visited battlefields.
Treated with herbal remedies. Forgotten quickly after. No part in reform post-Crimea.
Coverage of the war and change in perception – first war w photos but had to be developed, preserved, printed. 1850s
developed enough for battle zones. No action shots.
Roger Fenton photography – wanted photographs that sold, to private purchasers. No action shots, not present at
major battles. Stark realism = shocking. Couldn’t hide squalid conditions.
William Russell reporting – sent by The Times. Lead article in most editions. Interested in treatment of wounded and
performance of generals. Good communication with soldiers. Charge of the Light Brigade description so vivid it
became a poem. Had firm opinions, sided with common soldier.
Political change and power of the press – gov didn’t realise power of the press in shaping public opinion. After – gave
more attention to press/how they managed info.
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