Samenvatting personal relations
Lecture 1 – introduction and early social relations
Peer relations begin in the first weeks of life, when infants notice each other and respond to each
other’s cries. After 1 year infants begin to communicate, share, engage in conflict with pears and
forge early relationships.
Classical developmental theory
- psychoanalytic theory: emphasizes the emotional limitations of infants, and the primacy of the
mother-infant relationship with the father-infant relationship becoming more prominent in later
childhood. No expectations that infants’ peer relations are significant for development
- Evolutionary theory: focus on the transmission of inherited characteristics from one generation to
the next and on the parent-offspring relationship/conflict.
- Attachment theory: infants are immersed in their relationship with their parents and only gradually
turn their attention to pears - monotropic attachments to primary caregivers
- Social learning theory: Parents seen as important influences on their children’s social development,
attachment is a learned attainment
- Cognitive developmental theory: peer influence begins to operate later in childhood
- Behavioural genetic theories: emphasize the role of genes and inborn temperament. Downplay the
contribution of parents
- Social system theories: human infants are already members of broader society and take an active
role in siblings, peers and other members of the community in which they reside
emphasis on sociable nature of infants, infants abilities to engage in multiple relationships and the
complex social networks in which infants and their families are embedded.
Are infants capable of true social interaction?
Evidence suggest that a rudimentary capacity for peer interaction is present in the fist months of life.
Contingent interaction between infant peers can be detected when 6-months-olds touch each other
and touch toys held by their peers.
3 important forms of social interactions
1. Prosocial exchanges: social partners work together to share resources and solve problems or to
respond to each other’s emotional and physical needs
2. Social conflict: antagonists object to each other’s behaviour and act to defend their own territory
or resources against encroachment from others
3. Social influence: actors learn from, conform to or are persuaded by their companions
Developmental course of triadic interaction not known.
most often, 2 toddlers engaged in dyadic interaction, closely monitored by the 3 rd.
Early peer relations in relation to other interpersonal relationships
Most developmental theories the caregiver-infant relationship is a prerequisite to the infants
subsequent relations with other people
BUT social system approaches see it as parallel development, not requiring earlier relationship with
caregiver as prerequisite
Link to other interpersonal relationships and infants peer relations:
mothers/fathers: individual difference in mothers and mother-infant relationship may be linked to
,differences in infants peer relationships
siblings: sibling relationships may influence peer relations of older children but there is little evidence
Other sources of influence on early peer relations: genes, sex, temperament, cognition and language,
cultural settings.
3 surges of interest in young peers
- classic studies of infants in orphanages and nurseries key features of early peer relations
- experimental studies social nature and development of distinct peer relations
- longitudinal studies individual differences, import of early peer relations for development
Even in the first year of life, behaviour with peers is socially directed, persistent and flexible (SO
intentional) but the intentions can only be deduced by observational data.
Are infants truly social?
classical theories: infants are not capable of true social interaction
-later relationships are derived from relationships with primary caregivers
-peer start to matter later in life
BUT that is not what we observe in practise innate preference for good behaviour
modern theories: children are biologically wired to pay attention to others beside primary care givers
-the entire social system influences a child
-early peer relations can be important for development as well
scrambled faces paradigm (minutes after birth), boards with heads/empty/scrambled
dyadic peer-relationships
contingent responses: responses that build on what the other person did (reactivity)
-starts already at 6 months
-example: dyadic differences in touching. (mirroring behaviour easiest way to study it)
Prosocial exchanges: attempt to intervene on behalf of a victim, to change the situation or lessen the
distress
new-borns cry in response to other (new born)cries
8 M.O. respond with: gaze>affect (smile)>physical response (waving)>self-distress
2 Y.O. individuals differences start: problem-solving, aggression, amusement
sharing:
12 M.O. affiliative sharing: focus of non-sharing
18 M.O. share when it is requested: understanding of ownership
from 24 M.O: share spontaneously, reciprocate sharing (give back), sensitivity to distress
at 48 M.O. sharing increases and is related to ToM (awareness of other people’s thoughts/emotions)
cooperating:
1 Y.O can already cooperate (rudimentary forms)
2 Y.O + cooperation becomes more complex
Conflict: conflict is functional: helps the development
1 Y.O: resolves conflict by physical toys 2 Y.O: use verbal means
kids avoid conflict, especially hard hits.
retaliation in conflict occurs
gender differences start around age 3
,Beyond the dyad:
triadic relations
infancy: by nonverbal exchanged, around 6 months, shared meaning (3 stroller situation), around age
2: many triadic relations (most common; 2 children playing together and 1 looking)
status and dominance: (group level processes)
clear status structures in 11- 15 months related to tenure, development and gender
most dominant kid most directing to most subordinate partner and not interested in looking
2nd most dominant kid: directing other 2 subordinate and onlooking only towards dominant
Underlying skills
-there are huge individual difference in underlying skills and development
- the social system (parents, other kids in day-care, siblings, people who come over often)
- there might be evidence for continuity (lack of development in early stage predict in older age)
joint attention: ability to coordinate attention with another person
starts at 6 months old and use gaze and gestures (pointing at objects), one of the basics for ToM
emotion regulation: ability to control your own emotions (especially negative ones)
in a way also about focussing attention (not on negative stuff). Differences between adult and
peer situations (less upset with peers than parents: safe haven at home)
inhibitory control: trying to inhibit your immediate behaviour impulse (seeing peers or other living
things as objects) development of personal space. Inhibition needs to be balanced though
imitation: needed for harmonious play with peers learning tool for social skills and relevant for
bonding.
causal understanding: requires 3 things
- that the other is an intentional social agent (others have goals and intentions)
- your own actions affect others
- others can do things by accident
develops from 6 months forward
Language: verbal ability is related to higher prosociality and lower aggression and to ToM
development (sad and anger are not the same thing, difference between angry, irritated, annoyed)
pretend play (starts after age 2): fosters friendships and becomes more complex over time.
Lecture 2 – social networks
Social network: those people with whom someone is in direct contact (repeated interactions, mental
representation of the relation)
Close social ties are an important health behaviour.
Older adults often report greater satisfaction with their social networks than younger adults
social networks tend to shrink across adulthood and older adults retain relationships with their
closest most rewarding social ties.
socioemotional theory: as people grow older they perceive their time lift in life to be growing
shorter, they shift their priorities towards emotional goals.
Older adults appear to engage in relationship regulation strategies: spend more time in maintaining
relationships and expose/seek less conflict.
Health-related benefits of proactive regulation of relationships: emotional wellbeing promotes sound
health behaviours and provide support in times of need. Also, smaller network generates fewer
negative situations (so less negative social ties)
limits on older adults social relationships: loss of close relationships, longstanding members who are
, a source of aversive interactions.
Frequent negative exchanges with close social network members are related to worse health across
multiple domains. Persistent conflicts are most detrimental but ambivalent (both positive and
negative interactions) social ties are also detrimental.
Likelihood of experiencing persisting conflicts
- severe or persistent stressful life events contribute strained relationships by overwhelming support-
providing capacities of friends and family
- intergenerational or cultural differences in expectations for companionship and support can kindle
resentments and misunderstandings
- sensory impairments (hearing loss) contribute to communication difficulties that can strain social
interaction and increase the risk of social withdrawal and loneliness.
- childhood adversity increases the risk of neglect by caregivers and exposure to interpersonal
conflicts threaten health.
Loss of close relationships (mainly loss of spouse)
- higher rates of physical symptoms, cardiac events, illness etc (most pronounced within 6 months of
loss of spouse)
- shared activities are key contexts in which people experience positive affect during their daily lives.
reorganizing social lives over time (requires people to deal with emotional pain and reorganize
social lives)
- social network substitution: derive support and companionship from alternative sources
- social network compensation: extent to which alternative sources boost emotional and
physical health
2 different perspectives on older adult’s close relationships
1. Emphasizes the distinct strengths of older adults’ social relationship that emerge from selective
engagement with rewarding social network members and relationship regulation strategies aimed at
avoiding conflicts/minimize impact high levels of satisfaction
2. Emphasizes areas of health-compromising vulnerability in the social relationships of some older
adults stemming from conflicts and misunderstandings that recur over time and from the loss or
disruption of important close relationships
Different types of social networks
- global network (social network): comprises all existing social relationships of an individual with
family members, spouses, friends, co-workers, neighbours, society fellows etc.
- personal network (support network): network of closer personal relationships in the global network
such as family members, friends and other close confidants
- subnetworks: friendship network, family network (nuclear family, partner, sometimes
grandparents), work-related network.
Size of social network is an important characteristic indicates social resources.
Number of relationships in specific subnetworks is important
distinct relationships can fulfil different functions
Socioemotional selectivity theory: describes how social goals
(social relationships) change over the entire life course due to
shifts in perspectives on how much time on has left to live
adolescence/young adulthood: information acquisition goals
