From all 8 problems, summarized and concise definitions of terms and processes needed for the final exam. Chronologically ordered by problem.
Summary of the most important terms and processes.
Problem 1: Brain and body
Anatomy:
Sagittal plane into left and right part
Horizontal plane into superior and inferior (perpendicular to sagittal and
coronal)
Coronal plane into ventral and dorsal (belly and back) sections
Cross section a transverse (horizontal) cut through a structure or tissue
Medial toward the center/middle (closest)
Lateral away from the center/middle (sideways)
Contralateral - right eye processed left hemisphere (diagonal)
1. Different parts of the brain:
- Forebrain (prosencephalon) The most anterior (front) of the three primary regions of the
embryonic brain
Cerebrum (telencephalon) two hemispheres (left and right) located beneath the cortical
hemispheres
o Function: directing movements and balance
o Cerebral cortex an area of the brain resembling a folded sheet of grey tissue that covers
the rest of the brain – two cerebral hemispheres
Function: directs the brains higher cognitive and emotional functions
o 4 Lobes:
Frontal lobe behavior/personality/emotions or “the boss of the brain” –
executive function
Parietal lobe coordination/motor memory or sensation with the outer world
Temporal lobe general (sensual) memory/language or hearing
Occipital lobe vision or more particular face recognition, movement, memory
info and etc.
- Sulci (lines, indentations), gyri (protrusions), fissures (separate different lobes)
4 gyri:
o Precentral (frontal lobe)
o Post central (parietal lobe) + senses
o Superior (temporal lobe) – hearing
o Cingulate (near corpus callosum).
3 fissures:
o Calcarine fissure occipital lobe, primary visual cortex
o Lateral fissure separates temporal lobe from frontal and parietal
o Sylvian fissure separates temporal lobes from cerebral hemisphere
o Central fissure separates parietal from frontal
Corpus callosum (white matter) axons of neurons which connect the two hemispheres of the
brain
Thalamus/hypothalamus/epithalamus (diencephalon)
, o Limbic system (around brain stem) a series of subcortical structures which connect the
cortex with other parts of the brain
o Function: regulating emotional and motivation behavior and memory
o thalamus transmits nerve impulses, up sensory pathways to the cerebral cortex &
function sort sensory info
o hypothalamus (keeping homeostasis & VIP for ANS) regulating motivated behavior (e.g.,
appetite) and release of hormones to the pituitary gland
mammillary body relay impulses to the thalamus & recognitional memory
o hippocampus (between thalamus and cerebral cortex) the transfer of information from
short-term to long-term memory
o Pineal gland (between cerebrum and thalamus) releases hormones into the body
(melatonin) (between cerebellum and thalamus)
o olfactory bulbs sense of smell
o amygdala role in basic emotions, aggression, and the development of emotional
memories
o cingulate cortex (cingulate gyrus) -reparation, anticipation, and decision-making
processes activate it
- Basal ganglia: a bunch of neurons with the same function, namely: caudate nucleus, putamen,
globus pallidus
o Function planning and directing movement
- Optic chiasm (close to the pituitary gland) the endings of the optic nerves extend to the back of
the brain in the occipital lobe (primary visual cortex)
- The ventricles are 4 in total:
o Two laterals
o One that divides thalamus in left and right
o Fourth that connects with the third in the center of medulla and goes down the spinal cord
- Midbrain (Mesencephalon) relays sound input to the auditory cortex (part of the Brain stem)
Tectum the upper surface of the midbrain
o Superior colliculus: vision
o Inferior colliculus: hearing
Tegmentum red nucleus in the midbrain, receiving input from cerebellum
o Reticular formation a network of many nuclei: VIP for functions like breathing or blood
circulation and etc.
o Cerebral aqueduct (between tectum and tegmentum) periaqueductal gray (gray matter
surrounding the cerebral aqueduct
o Substantia nigra dopamine, facilitates readiness
Ventral tegmental area (VTA) critical to the development of behavioral reward and
behavioral sensitization
- Hindbrain (Metencephalon & Myelencephalon)
o Pons part of the Brain stem (sleep and arousal)
o Cerebellum (small back brain) plays important role in movement and cognition (also
motion memory)
, o Medulla oblongata the central core of the Brain stem that connects the brain with the
rest of the body
o Reticular formation runs through the Brain stem, also in Midbrain alerts the cerebral
cortex to incoming sensory signals and serves to regulate arousal levels
2. Central and Peripheral Nervous system
o CNS Spinal cord and brain sends information to the peripheral nervous system the
brain processes and interprets sensory information sent from the spinal cord
Brain:
Cerebral spinal fluid goes into the brain verticals (produced in the
choroid plexus) - it cushions the brain (protects from damage)
Body-blood barrier - protects brain from toxic substances in the blood
that could be transmitted into the brain (active transport - using energy to
bring in substances the brain needs)
Spinal cord:
Layout: gray matter - contained in dorsal part, ventral part has motor nerves
meninges three membranous coverings, protective of the spinal cord
(both brain and spine) & has 3 layers:
1st layer: Dura mater tough outermost layer
2nd layer: Arachnoid membrane delicate and thin
3rd layer: Pia mater internal delicate membrane covers brain
surface, follows contours (gyri and sulci)
Cranial nerves: 6 pairs (total of 12) of nerves that originate in the brain.
Each has a different function for sense/movement in the head and neck
area.
o PNS connects to the rest of the body
Autonomic regulates the internal environment
Sympathetic mobilizes energy (psychological arousal)
Parasympathetic conserves energy (psychological relaxation)
Somatic system regulates the interaction with the external environment
- Neuron a cell specialized in receiving information and passing it on to other cells
o Cell body (soma): integration of information and generation of signals
o Cell nucleus: location of the DNA
o Dendrites (branches): collection of information from other neurons
o Axon: passing the signal over long distances
o Myelin sheaths: covering the axon, also protects and speeds up the connection
o Nodes of Ranvier: the small ‘interruptions’ of axon between the Myelin
o Presynaptic (axon) terminals: information crossing to the synapses
o Synapses (axon terminals): boutons that transmit the signal to the next neuron
- Types of neurons:
o Local neuron neurons without axons, exchange information to closest neighbors
o Sensory neurons inspect sensation, carry info to brain (Afferent)
o Afferent neurons the neurons that carry sensory impulses towards the CNS
o Motor neurons from brain to muscle (body) (Efferent)
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