College aantekeningen
Lectures Contemporary theories
All lectures and some extra explanations
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Voorbeeld 2 van de 14 pagina's
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Voorbeeld van de inhoud
Contemporary theoriesDikgedrukt= Kopje of hoofdstuk
Onderstreept= Betekenis
Schuingedrukt= Belangrijk
*tussen sterretjes*= Komt uit het boek,
niet uit het college
VB./ Ex.= Voorbeeld / example
Lecture 1
Contemporary theories has the goal to
adopt a critical approach with regard to the validity of the knowledge presented in much of
the management literature. Exam is 60% of the final grade, minimum 5.5. Everyone has
theories… common sense= good sense and sound judgement in practical matters. Which
help you look at reality in a certain way.
However, any good social scientist knows that the facts do not speak for themselves.
Theoretical structures are critical (black, 1969). Theories consider concepts. A general
concept= refer to the basic outline of the investigation or study. Generally they relate to the
requirement for the complete analysis of the problem. They differ according to the field of
study. In such cases brainstorming the ideas or concepts from the relevant expertise is re-
quired. Something conceived in the mind; thought, notion. An abstract or generic idea
generalized from particular instances.
From concepts to theories; theory belongs to the family of words that includes guess,
speculation, supposition, conjecture, proposition, hypothesis, conception, explanation,
model. If everything from a guess to a general falsifiable explanation has a tinge of theory to
it, then it becomes more difficult to separate what is theory from what isn’t.
Common sense to science
People's intuitions about human behaviour, also known as folk psychology, often turn out to be wrong. This
is one primary reason that psychology relies on science rather than common sense. They search for evi-
dence and consider alternatives before accepting a claim about human behaviour as true. For theory to be
good it has to be and able to turn common sense into science it has to have: - Explicit
- Measurable
- Generalizable
- Falsifiable
Theory= a system of statements targeted at describing, explaining and predicting a real-world phenomenon
(Bacharach, 1989). It consists of constructs and propositions (ie relationships between constructs) that
collectively presents a logical, systematic and coherent
explanation of the real world phenomenon within certain
boundaries. Ex. Transaction costs theory= stimulates that high
transaction costs encourage firms to insource the making of a
product or service. Transaction costs depend on asset
specificity, uncertainty or frequency. Another example is Game
theory= the study of mathematical models of strategic interaction
among rational decision-makers. It has applications in all fields of
social science, as well as in logic, systems science and computer
science.
In the empirical plane, you see in the figure that the cause will turn into a consequence by the effect. But
when you have an independent variable the hypothesis turns it into the dependent variable. Scientific
thinking through variables: A variable = observable directly (manifest). It is empirically measurable and it is a
representation of an abstract construct (latent). For example. When testing intelligence, it is often measured
by using her IQ score. Which is an index generated from an analytical pattern-matching test administered
people. In this case the IQ score is a variable intended to measure the per se unobservable intelligence
construct.
The hypothesis= states (expected) relationships between variables, it is empirically testable and is stated in
a falsifiable form. The hypotheses specifies the expected
relationship between the IQ score and the grade point average are
respectively operational measures of intelligence.
So, now the constructs represent classes of observations. It shows
the relationships of the constructs in the theoretical plane with the
independent and dependent variable. A construct= an abstract
, conceptual entity, it is inferred from observable actions or states of
phenomena and it needs an operational definition to become more
measurable. Student intelligence is a construct, which explains the
degree to which a person is able to absorb knowledge. Since student
intelligence usefulness is not empirically measurable directly, it can’t be
a manifest variable.
A proposition= a relationship between constructs, stated in a declarative
form, must be falsifiable, explicitly delineates constructs and typically introduces
causality. An increase in student intelligence causes an increase in their academic
achievement.
In simple terms, you have what, how and why (how are they related and why does it
hold). The boundary conditions; the assumptions about values, time and space.
Theories are nets cast to catch what we call the world to rationalize, to explain and to
master it. For example. Here on the right about alcohol.
But we advised; there is more than one means of representation for theory: - Box and
arrow diagrams
- Mathematical formulas
- Symbolic logic
- Tables
- Prototypes
- Or simply words (narratives)
Different representation might also help to mature the theory. Evidence and reasoning will help any form of
theory to become meaningful. Not each means might be equally suited for every type of theory (Gregor,
2006 en Shapiro, 2011). So you can test these in your empirical studies.
Theory type Distinguish attributes
Analysis; says what is Framewo The theory does not extend beyond analysis and
rk description. No causal relationships among phenomena
are specified and no predictions are made.
Explanation; says what Theory The theory provides explanations but does not aim to
is, how, why, when and predict with any precision. There are no testable
where. propositions.
Prediction; says what is Model The theory provides predictions and has testable
and what will be. propositions but does not have well-developed
justificatory causal explanations.
Explanation and Theory Provides predictions and has both testable propositions
prediction; says what and causal explanations.
is, how, why, when,
where and what will be
Design and action; Model The theory gives explicit prescriptions (eg methods,
says how to do techniques, principles of form and function) for
something. constructing an artifact.
Design and action
There is nothing so practical as a good theory (Lewin, 1945). Design’s basic rationale. Scientific insight= can
be used as input to build better solutions. Theory as an input to problem solving (helps to understand the
why question: generalizability is important). Theory as a result of problem solving.
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