Samenvatting
Summary Information Science Modules 4, 5, 6 Radboud University IBC
This is a very clear summary of all modules of period 4: module 4, 5 and 6.
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Voorbeeld 4 van de 40 pagina's
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Voorbeeld van de inhoud
The Human Factor- Topic 4Introduction
Humans are not able to get the full potential out of what the internet can offer us.
Big internet companies developed technology that does the thinking for us. Siri is
example.
All this helping technique has advantages and disadvantages:
Helping people who can’t write with speech input:
Allows them to write
Device is listening to us all the time and invades privacy
Personal assistants:
Help us online
Collect lots of information about us, can manipulate us in the way their providers
want and may stop us from thinking for ourselves.
To profit from the advantages and not suffer from disadvantages we have to learn to
recognize the threats.
Accessibility
Our experiences are influenced by our senses and our situations. How we see
hear, move and think online differs= Difference in accessibility.
Different people process information in different ways and use technology
(phones/apps) in different ways.
Accessibility= The attempt to make information processing systems available to as
many kinds of people as possible.
We do not all have the same abilities, but by paying attention to accessibility, we
can make sure we all have the same opportunities to access information online and
use information technology.
When creating a website/app, you need to make sure you don’t exclude any people.
You need to anticipate how different people will experience and interact with your
creation in different ways.
Be inclusive= Making sure everyone gets to do what they want to in a way that
suits them.
Keep in mind:
Sight: 20/20 vision, may find app blurry, make text larger or not able to see at all
Use colours that cannot confuse, use big font, use text-to-speech, code it so
screen reader can read it correctly.
Sound: Not everyone can hear it or may want to turn it off.
Provide way to turn sound off, use sign language, captions or transcripts.
Movement: Some use other device than mouse (keyboard or eye-tracking). Some
need more time to move.
Make it easy to move around your creation.
Cognition: Some people understand things differently or faster/slower.
Write content that is simple and clear. Make it obvious.
Cultural differences
It is important to consider cultural differences when designing products.
, Culture= The set of shared values, attitudes, behaviours, beliefs and traditions that
characterizes a group of people and distinguishes them from other groups.
Designers try to provide consumers with what they want while trying to avoid
offending people from different cultures.
There is no natural connection between concepts and colours. All connotations we
have are culturally based. Besides connotations, cultures also have different
preferences for colours.
Diffusion of innovation
Diffusion of innovations= The uptake of new technology always happens slowly and
gradually because some people adopt new technologies quicker than others.
There are 5 adaptor groups and when you introduce your new technology you have
to market the new technology differently to each group:
Innovators= First to learn and adopt an innovation. Responsible for introducing
innovations to the larger population.
Early adopters= Small forward-thinking group respected as opinion leaders. Their
endorsement plays a key role in crossing Chasm= When the adoption of an
innovation bridges the gap between the trendsetters and the majority.
Greatest influence.
Early majority group= Take time to make decisions. Only adopt the product when
they are convinced it has benefits.
Late majority group= More resistant to change but responsive to peer pressure.
Want innovations to be widely tested.
Laggards= Highly resistant to change and hard to reach with marketing campaigns
because they have minimal exposure to media. They may noy adopt.
Groups based on age, social
status, personality, financial
status, social contacts.
If the user isn’t able to
successfully learn to use the
information system, it is doomed
to failure.
Digital divide
People in less-advantaged groups lack strong technology skills, money to buy
computers and free time to use internet.
Digital divide= Gap between advantaged groups of people and less-advantaged
people. Leads to unbalanced distribution of information and communication
technologies within society.
Digital divide in 3 stages:
1. Economic divide= Some people can afford to have a computer and internet while
others can’t. This will disappear by itself as the price of hardware and internet
continues to drop.
, 2. Usability divide= Technology remains so complicated that many people do not
understand it. Seniors and illiterate.
3. Empowerment divide= Most difficult. Very few users understand the power digital
technology can give them, through advanced search, distinguishing paid search ads
from organic search results. Many people limit what they can do online by
accepting the basic default settings.
Besides, there are more concerns:
4. Social mobility= Lack of computer educations works to the disadvantage of lower
socioeconomic status.
5. Democracy= Greater use of the Internet can lead to healthier democracies in
elections.
6. Economic growth= Greater use of internet in developing countries could provide a
shortcut to economic growth. Using the latest technology could give companies a
competitive advantage.
Humans as information processors
We believe our brain doesn’t make mistakes. When it comes to information
processing, our brain is limited in capacity and may make mistakes. We should be
aware of our limitations and work with them.
Rationality
Rational choice model= People behave rationally when making decisions about
how to manage their money.
Behavioural economics= Humans do not act rationally, but have limits.
Limitations of the human brain:
We make mistakes in our vision (visual illusions) which we use daily, so how many
mistakes do we then make in something we’re not as good at, like decision-making?
We do recognize our physical limits, but not our cognitive limits, because they are
not as obviously in our face.
We don’t know our preferences very well, and because we don’t know our
preferences, our decisions are susceptible to influences from external forces. The
decisions we make are based on the choices that we are presented with.
In Sweden many people do donate but in Denmark many people do not. It is because
in Sweden you have to check the box if you do not want to donate and in Denmark
you have to check it if you do want to donate. When faced with difficult choices,
people tend towards not doing anything.
When an undesirable third choice was added to two relatively equally desirable
choices, and the undesirable was similar to one of the more desirable choices, people
tend to prefer the desirable choice which was similar to the undesirable choice.
It’s impossible for humans to learn completely rational behaviour, but we may
reduce our mistakes if we learn to recognize our cognitive limitations.
Perception and illusions
What we perceive is sensory stimulation combined with an active brain process.
Perception= The way in which our brain organizes and interprets information it
receives from the senses and puts this information into context. Our senses don’t
, mean anything without the ability of our brains to organize information into
perceptions that are meaningful.
Your eyes feed your brain raw data. This is not what we actually see, but how our
mind interprets it. How our mind perceives the environment is caused by our
perceptual set.
Perceptual set= The psychological factors that determine how you see your
environment.
Expectations
Context
Culture
Emotions and motivations
The brain is the major factor in deciding what we hear for example, as it places all incoming
signals in a context.
How to lie with statistics
With bars you can give the impression of larger differences by:
- Replacing them with three-dimensional objects. The factor with which the bars
differ is still two, but the objects are three-dimensional, so the impression is given
of a factor 8 difference.
- Choosing a range for the y-axis so that there are both very low and very high bars.
- Choosing a proper range for the y-axis but then cut out part of it, where nothing
happens anyway.
With a line graph you can choose the right range on the y-axis to make the
differences seem larger.
Cognitive Biases
Cognitive biases= Mental errors caused by our simplified information processing
strategies.
A cognitive bias doesn’t result from any emotional or intellectual predisposition
toward a certain judgement, but rather from subconscious mental procedures for
processing information.
There are different cognitive biases:
Survivorship bias= Assuming you have all information, while only considering
surviving examples.
Voluntary bias= Assuming you have all information, while only having that from
specific sources. This can happen in completely voluntary situations, like restaurant
reviews, but also in polls where not everybody will respond.
Bandwagon effect= Probability of one person adopting a belief increases based on
the number of people who hold that belief.
Clustering Illusion= Tendency to see patterns in random events.
Confirmation Bias= Tendency to listen only to information that confirms our
preconceptions.
Hindsight Bias= When looking back in time, you are convinced you knew something
was going to happen.
Inter-group Bias= We view people in our group differently from how we view people
in another group.
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