Terrorism and counterterrorism:
comparing theory and practice
notes
Week 1: The Essence of Terrorism
1.1: Introduction
Globally, more than 28.000 people died from terrorist attacks.
Iraq is ahead with almost 7.000 people killed, followed by Afghanistan and Nigeria with
about 5.000 people dead. Syria strikes with almost 3.000 deaths, and Pakistan with over
1.000 victims.
“Only” 151 deaths in the EU in 2015. 34 in the US and 289 in India. China only 70!
Brazil had 0 deaths. Terrorism is high on political agendas in many countries, in international
for a like the UN, NATO and definitely after 9/11. Terrorism after 9/11 influences
relationships between countries and the way we think about security. But, other issues like
the economy, environment, technology at cetera also have impact on our lives.
Terrorism is a worldwide phenomenon, but it has huge regional differences. It has impact on
peace and security. And some believe we live in a post-9/11 world.
1.2: History of Terrorism
Pre-modern terrorism: it’s nothing new that non state actors use terrorism. In pre-modern
days, there were groups and individuals that used political violence against the authorities
and elite. Think of the Assassins, who in the late 11th century in the Middle East killed
governors, politicians and military leaders. Or “Propaganda of the deed, par le fait” from
France that was active since the 1870’s.
Even more than a century ago, there were many different groups using different tactics and
having different goals (extreme left, fascists) killing ordinary citizens, heads of states, in their
hometown or across borders. Each terrorism period or wave lasts about three or four
decades.
Four waves in terrorism (David Rapoport)
1. Anarchists 1880s
The movement began in Russia and it spread to all the other parts of the world, from
America, to Western Europe, to Asia. Russian writers like Bakunin and Kropotkin started the
terrorist movement with their doctrine/strategy of terror using new
communication/technology like newspapers. Narodnaya Volya (people’s will) is a notorious
organisation of that time that called themselves terrorists. The 1890s are called the Golden
Age of Assassination (1890s to early 20th century) because so many heads of states were
killed (Empress Elizabeth Austria, King Uberto Italy, President McKinley US).
, 2. Anti-colonial wave 1920s
Struggle for self-determination, independence and liberation of certain parts of the world.
These groups used guerrilla tactics (hit and run) which was difficult for the powers of the
British and French empires for example. They also stopped calling themselves terrorists: they
were self-proclaimed freedom fighters that fought against government terror. The Irish
Republican Army (IRA) that fought for a free and united Irish state is well known from the
1920s. Also the Front de Liberation Nationale group of Algerians was popular that time
(against France). And last Irgun, and militant Zionist group that fought the British authorities
that were governing Israel and Palestine (attack on the Kind David Hotel in Jerusalem)
3. New left wave/red terrorism 1960s
The Vietnam war that raged from the late 1950s until the 1970s was a big driver for a lot of
terrorist groups also in Western Europa and North America. Many groups in the developed
world like Weather Underground (students NA) and Autonomi (Germany) saw themselves as
vanguards for the masses of the third world. Latin America: urban guerrilla that was
supported by the Soviet (cold war!). The era is also represented by the Palestinian Liberation
Organisation (PLO). The terrorist organisations used hostage takings and hijackings. A
famous hostage taking example is the hostage taking of Israeli athletes during the Olympic
Games in Munich in 1972 which dozens of people around the globe watched > Black
September. Hijacking (at planes) was aimed to get attention or to free some of the terrorists.
In those days, people got out of the plane because the aim was not to kill people, but to use
them as a tool to get attention or press governments to do stuff.
4. Religious wave starting in 1979
Islamic, Jewish, Sikh, Christian (anti-abortion) and sects: attack on the Tokyo subway by the
Aum sect. Their modus operandi is again assassination of key leaders of states, hostage
taking and new; the suicide bombing. Done by the Lebanese organisation called Hezbollah
which attacked US and French military forces in Lebanon with suicide bombings. Also non-
religious groups like Kurdish worker parties, Mao separatists groups in Turkey and Tamil
Tigers in Sri Lanka used it. And of course Al Qaeda.
5. Fifth wave?
Someday, the fourth terrorist wave will fade out and has a lot less sympathisers and
supporters though it will never really disappear. Because the waves only last a couple
decades. And what modus operandi will they use?
1.3: Use of the Word Terrorism
Certain violent acts or attacks that would nowadays be labelled with “terrorist attack” were
called something else in the past. The attack on the 25th US President McKinley in 1901 was
simply referred to as “shot by anarchists”, “hit”. Different times, different words to describe
events.
Oxford dictionary on terrorism: the unofficial or unauthorised use of violence and
intimidation in the pursuit of political aims… we don’t agree with this definition. There is a
, lot of disagreement on how to define the term among scholars, policy makers, politicians
and experts. There is no unambiguous term.
The English words terrorist and terrorism are used a lot, but it has different meanings at
different times and in different languages. There is no generally accepted definition.
1.4: Why There Are No Generally Accepted Definitions
Alex Schmid gave us four reasons of why there is no generally accepted definition of
terrorism. There are four difficulties in defining terrorism:
1. Terrorism is a “contested concept”: “One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom
fighter” explains this concept. The word terrorism is very subjective. Examples of this
phrase are: Yasser Arafat of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) who has
been considered a terrorist, but also holds a Nobel Peace Prize. Abdullah Ocalan of
the Kurdish Workers Party (PKK) is considered an arch enemy by Turkish authorities
and a hero by Kurdish people. Osama Bin Laden is the former leader of Al Quada. Che
Guevara is a revolutionary left wing activist, at least in the 50s and 60s. Today, he’d
probably be labelled with terrorist. The leader of the Tamil Tigers was fighting the Sri-
Lankan authorities (separatist nationalist terrorist or freedom fighter). Or extreme-
rightist: a fascist or a freedom fighter?
2. Delegitimization and criminalisation: there are lists where designated terrorist
organisations and terrorist are put on and so they’ll be considered criminal and be
treated that way. The UN, US and EU for example have those lists. There is a big
debate about those lists and pressure upon governments and international
organisation about what groups and people to put on the list, and take off the list. A
controversy organisation, for example, is Hezbollah, a Shiite militant group and
political party. They’re on the EU list.
3. Many types of terrorism: those different types all have a different form and
manifestation, think about the goal, modus operandi for example. EUROPOL
distinguishes five groups based on ideology.
Religious inspired (ethno-nationalist and separatist)
Left wing and anarchists
Right wing
Single issue
So when an attack does not fit into a certain type, can it never be labelled as
terrorism?
4. Changes in meaning in the more than 200 years of existence: the term terrorism has
changed in meaning several times. Originally, it was used to describe the terror by
authorities after the French Revolution. Also, anti-government attacks weren’t
described as terrorism before the and of the 19th, early 20th century. Think about the
assassination of McKinley. The reaction after the 9-11 attacks differed a lot from each
other too, but mostly you did see terrorism in the headlines. It makes sense that the
meaning of the word changed, since the act itself did and still does too.
1.5: Need For a Definition: Some Attempts
Why do we need to have a definition of the term terrorism?
- International cooperation to fight terrorism: since it’s cross border, data needs to be
shared (who are we fighting?) and there has to be some level of agreement on what’s
