Part I: Introduction to Scientific Reasoning
Chapter 1: Psychology is a way of thinking
Psychological science is based on studies. Psychologists are empiricist, conclusions are based on
systematic observations rather than opinions or intuition.
Research producers: The persons conducting the research, for instance during their job or studies.
Research consumers: The persons consuming research information for their own personal growth, or
to apply it in their work, with clients or during studies. As a consumer you have to be able to ask the
right questions, and ‘’interrogate the information’’.
In practice, most professionals engage in both roles.
Evidence-based treatment: Treatment supported by research
A benefit from being a good consumer of research is being able to use it in your career.
Having knowledge of psychological research methods helps you become a better producer and better
consumer of research, because you are able to assess the quality of the methods used during the
research. Having an understanding of the process means you are able to look for trustworthy, useful
and valid research. You will be able to tell good research from the bad.
There are 5 fundamental ways psychologists approach their work:
1 Empiricism
They base conclusions on systematic observations. Evidence from the senses. This is way more
reliable compared to other forms of reasoning such as experience or intuition.
2 Testing theories (theory-data cycle)
Scientists collect data to test, change or update
their theories. This cycle starts with an idea, a
theory.
A theory is a set of statements that describes
general principles about how variables relate to one
another. A hypothesis is a prediction about the
answers the research questions are going to bring
forward.
Data are a set of observations.
When the data does not support the hypotheses, it
indicates that the theory needs to be revised,
and/or the research design needs to be improved.
When the data does support the hypotheses, the
theory gets more confirmed, but it may raise more
questions to dig deeper in.
,
,3 Applied and basic problems
Applied research, toegepast onderzoek: Is done with a practical problem in mind, in the real world
context.
Basic research, : Is done to enhance a general body of knowledge
Translational research: Is the use of lessons from basic research to develop and test it in the real
world context. It is a bridge between basic and applied research.
4 Dig deeper
Studies always lead to new questions, and scientists dig deeper by researching those questions.
5 Make it public
When they want to open their results scientists can publish in scientific journals. These journals are
peer reviewed, the editor of the journal sends the submission to three of four experts on the subject.
This is anonymous and they decide whether the paper deserves to be published in the journal. This
to ensure the quality of the research put in the journals.
By publishing work, researchers make their research transparent, end the scientific community gains
from it and evaluates it. They can publish letters, other studies of commentaries about the published
research.
Features of good scientific theories:
1) Good theories are supported by data
A theory has to be supported by data from research studies. It has to be consistent with the
observations of the world. To be even better there need to be multiple studies and methods.
A theory that is supported by a large quantity and variety of evidence is a good theory.
2) Good theories are falsifiable
A theory must lead to hypotheses that could fail to support the theory. You have to test and research
openly to let the opportunity be there that can prove you ‘’wrong’’. You have to be open to data that
does not support your theory.
3) Good theories have parsimony (spaarzaam)
Theories are supposed to be simple.
Sometimes, when new data arrives scientists have to make their theory less parsimony to still
accommodate the data. ‘’baby monkeys attach to contact comfort’’ to ‘’baby monkeys attach to
contact comfort especially in the early months of life’’.
Theories don’t prove anything, the word prove is not used in science. Data will not prove anything,
also because research is probabilistic. Data only supports, or is consistent with a theory!
Scientists evaluate their theories based on the weight of the evidence for and against. They always
look at the quality of the whole research that makes the claims before altering their theories.
Quality of research information:
Rigor: How do we know if the research gives a good answer to the research question?:
Reflexivity: Researcher has to be aware of their own role and impact in dataverzameling
Dependability: In hoeverre is het antwoord op de onderzoeksvraag afhankelijk van de onderzoeker?
Confirmabiliy: In hoeverre is de onderzoeker objectief te werk gegaan?
Transferability: In hoeverre gelden de conclusies ook voor een andere groep?
, Benefits and risks of journalism coverage
A journalist is a person who writes news stories or articles for a newspaper or magazine or
broadcasts them on radio or television: also often for entertainment values.
When talking about scientific research, journalists have to report on the most important scientific
stories, and describe them accurately.
Benefits: General public can learn, opens research up to peer-feedback, give the researcher attention
Risks: They describe the research inaccurately, dramatize headlines, make unrightful claims, leave
out important details, the audience will misinterpret the data, can cause false information
The ‘mozart-effect’ example: the headlines claimed that Mozart makes you smart, while the studies
only found out that children who had listened to Mozart scored higher on 1 test, a small gain that
doesn’t last long.
Part I: Introduction to Scientific Reasoning
Chapter 2: Sources of information: Why research is best and how to find it!
Research VS Experience
Our experiences are a source of information. But, it can’t be trusted in the context of scientific
research:
1) Experience has no comparison group. Compared to what? A comparison group enables us to
compare what would happen both with and without the thing we are interested in.
With experience you are not looking at all the values. You’re not looking or testing out the other
situation or possibility. You’re also not looking at other groups because you are only ‘observing’
yourself. Your daily life does not include comparison experiences. Empirical research does.
2) Experience is confounded. In everyday life, too much is going on at once. There are several
possible explanations for an outcome. In research, these alternate explanations are called
confounds! Empirical research does take this in account by isolating variables while conducting
research.
Research is better than experience: Because scientists will set up a systematic comparison that
controls for potential confounds.
Research is probabilistic: Although it is more accurate than individual experience, research can not
have findings that are expected to explain all cases all of the time. This because a research is also
bound to the context, a moment, persons at that moment.
The findings only explain a certain part (preferably high part) of the possible cases.
Also, just because there is a strong general trend, it doesn’t mean that that is always the case. It can
suggest a strong probability, but never a perfect prediction because of the probabilistic nature of
research.
Confederate: This can be a person that is in on the research.
Research VS Your intuition
Your intuition can be biased in multiple ways.
1) Humans are easily swayed by a good story. We will accept a conclusion just because it makes
sense or feels natural. Sometimes a good story can be accurate, but it is important to be aware of the
limitations of your intuition. Be ready to alter your beliefs on the basis of the research.
2) Being persuaded by what comes easily to mind. This is called the availability heuristic.
Things that pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our thinking. This can happen when moments are
