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Summary HRD2602 - Topic 03: Workbook 07 to 11
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HRD2602_Topic 03_Workbook 07 to 11_Summaries_2021
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HRD2602 – TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PRACTICESTOPIC 3: Developing and Implementing workplace learning programmes
WORKBOOK 07
Learning theories and principles
7.2 THE LEARNING PROCESS
7.2.1 Definition of learning (Concept of Learning)
In environments specifically prepared for teaching and learning to take place, even discovery or finding out by the
students is an approach used by facilitators, instructors and trainers. This discovery is organised or intended as a
teaching method or approach. This approach is referred to as guided discovery, which is an extension of discovery
learning.
Central to this method is the idea that students should find out rather than be told about things. The Chinese
proverb, ‘Tell me, I’ll forget. Show me, I’ll remember. Involve me, I’ll understand’, is used to support this theory for
teaching. So the students are directed to experience and find out or discover for themselves
The descriptions of learning and learning experiences include the process of learning, phases of learning, and
capabilities and dispositions produced by learning.
• Learning is the accumulating of experiences and the consequential growth and new understanding of the
world around us.
• ‘Learning is the lifelong process of transforming information and experience into knowledge, skills,
behaviours and attitudes. It does require – in varying degrees, and in varying times and circumstances –
activities like practice, reflection, interaction with the environment (in the broadest sense) and social
interaction. The latter, in particular, can be greatly facilitated by the range of new technologies for
communication and collaboration now available to us.
• It does not always – probably not even most of the time – happen consciously – though … those who strive
for a more conscious approach to learning throughout their lives – whether at work or otherwise – tend to
be more successful in pretty much whatever way they define success.’
• ‘Active learning is more than memorising information. We learn with a deeper understanding when we are
engaged with the learning material. Thus, learning is about much more than merely memorising information;
it is about the quality of the journey towards a qualification, towards competence’.
• ‘Learning can be defined formally as the act, process or experience of gaining knowledge or skills. In contrast,
memory can define the capacity of storing, retrieving, and acting on that knowledge. Learning helps us move
from novices to experts and allows us to gain new knowledge and abilities.’
• ‘… learning is activity and experience. It is reflection upon experience. It is making connections and finding
patterns. It is the consequences of being involved in some valued activity in a culture, and as such it is a by-
product of participation in cultural activity, not the direct product of some study of facts about the world.’
• ‘… learning is acquiring any skill that enriches your life. It doesn’t have to be taught out of a book or by a
teacher, rather you may acquire it through your own exploration, through sharing or by instruction from
anyone, not necessarily a “teacher”.
Learning is a permanent change in behaviour or attitude as a result of the acquisition of knowledge, a skill, or
disposition and making sense of a new idea & being able to express it.
7.2.2 Active learning:
- is more than just memorising info, we learn with a deeper understanding when we are engaged with the
learning material. It is about the quality of the journey towards competence. Sometimes the learning journey
includes a qualification, sometimes it includes a workplace learning experience such as job rotation or
attending a workshop.
A framework that classifies learning objectives is a taxonomy of educational objectives.
• Common language about learning goals to facilitate communication across persons, subject matter & grade
levels.
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Summary by L Petzer
, HRD2602 – TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES
• Basis for determining a course or curriculum, the meaning of broad educational goals as those in the currently
prevalent national, state and local standard
• Determining the compatibility of educational objectives, activities and assessments in a unit, course or
curriculum.
• Panorama of the range of educational possibilities against which the limited breadth and depth of any particular
educational course or curriculum could be contrasted.
Taxonomy of Learning, Teaching, and Assessing (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
This taxonomy is an improvement on the taxonomy which Bloom (1956) originally developed. Anderson and
Krathwohl’s taxonomy retain much of the structure (and simplicity) of Bloom’s taxonomy, but has been expanded to
reflect new ways of thinking about learning.
Table 7.1: Cognitive processes and types of knowledge
The key terms used to define the cognitive process dimension of this grid are presented in table 7.2 and the
examples of action verbs suggest some ways in which these cognitive processes can be indicated in outcome
statements.
Table 7.2: Explanation of the cognitive processes
Cognitive process What learners are required to do Examples of action verbs
Remember Retrieve knowledge from long term Recognise, recall, define, describe, list,
memory match, reproduce, select, state
Understand Construct meaning from information & Paraphrase, interpret, give examples,
concepts classify, summarise, infer, compare,
discuss, explain, rewrite
Apply Carry out a procedure or use a technique in Change, demonstrate, predict, relate,
a given situation- applying procedures or show how, solve, determine
determining which procedure to use in a
particular situation
Analyse Divide info into parts & determine how the Analyse, compare, contrast, organise,
parts relate to one another & how they distinguish, illustrate, point out,
relate to an overall purpose or structure relate, explain, differentiate, attribute
Evaluate Make judgements based on criteria or Comment on, check, criticise, judge,
standards critique, discriminate, justify,
interpret, support
Create Put elements together to form a coherent Combine, design plan, rearrange,
or functional whole, or reorganise reconstruct, rewrite, generate,
elements into a new pattern produce
Source: Anderson and Krathwohl (2001)
In the knowledge dimension, four distinct types of knowledge are recognised, namely factual, conceptual,
procedural, and meta-cognitive.
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Summary by L Petzer
, HRD2602 – TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES
Table 7.3: Four types of knowledge
Knowledge Type Subtype Example
Factual knowledge 1. Knowledge of terminology 1. Symbols of chemical elements/ parts of a
machine
(Basic knowledge to
required to work in a 2. Knowledge of specific details 2. Sequence of elements in periodic table;
discipline) dates of events in history
Conceptional knowledge 1. Knowledge of classifications & 1. Types of western music, forms of business
categories ownership
(Knowledge of how things
are related 2. Knowledge of principles & 2. Newton’s laws of motion, Pythagoras
generalisations theorem
3. Knowledge of theories, models 3. Theory of evolution: information-
& structures processing model of cognition
Procedural knowledge 1. Knowledge of subject-specific 1. Skills used in drawing a house plan;
skills & algorithms
(Knowledge of how to do
things) 2. Knowledge of subject specific 2. Interviewing technique; scientific method
techniques & methods of inquiry
3. Knowledge of criteria for 3. Criteria to determine when to use the
determining when to use “guess and check” procedure for problem
particular procedures. solving; criteria to judge the feasibility of
using cooperative learning as a teaching
strategy
Metacognitive knowledge 1. Strategic knowledge 1. Knowledge of flowcharting as a means of
showing relationships among elements of
(Knowledge of cognition in a process
general & awareness of
one’s own cognition & 2. Knowledge about cognitive 2. Knowledge of cognitive demands of
how to control one’s tasks particular tasks; knowledge of the ways
thinking process in which understanding is typically tested
by teachers
3. Self-knowledge 3. Awareness of one’s own knowledge level:
personal strengths & weaknesses in
learning tasks
Source: Anderson and Krathwohl (2001)
As with any taxonomy, this one should not be interpreted too rigidly. It is a guide for thinking about learning, not a
set of absolute truths, but the taxonomy has the potential to be useful as a guide to thinking about outcomes,
teaching, and assessment.
7.2.3 Motivation for learning:
Expected outcomes Less Important Very important
Personal development
To acquire more self-confidence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To broaden my horizons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To experience thinking through new ideas 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To be motivated for self-study 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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Summary by L Petzer
, HRD2602 – TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES
To link new knowledge with past experiences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To express newly formed ideas 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Course-related
To gain a higher education qualification 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To acquire new skills 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To be engaged in the learning process 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To process new information by rehearsing the skills 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To reach another level of understanding 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To demonstrate learning by teaching others what I have learnt 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To reflect on what I have learnt and to monitor my reflection in a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
reflection journal
To prioritise my own targets and strategies in the learning process 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Work-related
To improve my career opportunities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To better my current employment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To improve my promotion possibilities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
To make up for having missed out on education when I was younger 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Adults differ from young students in that they:
• Are problem centred
• Are results orientated
• Have specific results in mind for education
• Are self-directed
• Are sceptical about new information
• Seek education that relates or applies directly to their needs
• Accept responsibility for their learning.
Sources of motivation for adult learning are:
Social relationships: to meet a need for associations & friendships
Social welfare improves their ability to serve humankind & to participate in community work
Personal advancement achieves a higher status in a job or to stay ahead of competitors
Escape/ stimulation: provide a break in routine of home or work & to provide a contrast to other details of life
7.3 SPECIFIC CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE LEARNING
1. Motivation and enthusiasm: excitement & interest & may be done by the instructor or students, as they can
influence motivation. Intrinsic motivation (motivation from within & extrinsic motivation (external factors
expected results or rewards, qualification).
2. Organised information so the brain can structure & retain it approaches a person use to recall info. E.g.,
arrangement of topics from easy to complex, linking topics, patterns.
3. Engagement in the learning task apply info in relevant situations & reflect on info & form views, Be personally
organised & mentally, physically & psychologically.
4. Use both sides of the brain: Right side: feelings, creative, imagination, beliefs & subjective, left; logical,
mathematics, science, objective, analytical, use both if the situation requires it.
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Summary by L Petzer
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