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History of International Relations
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COMPLETE concept summary: History of International Relations (notes + pwp + textbook)
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COMPLETE summary: History of International Relations (notes + pwp + textbook)
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Voorbeeld van de inhoud
HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS – 2020HOOFDSTUK 1: Why is it useful for social scientists to
study history?
1. Because the present is laden with the past
2. Because history serves as a resource for political memories
3. Because history reveals the fundamental contingency of contemporary social and political
arrangements
4. Because history reveals the context-specificity of scholarly knowledge claims
Political memories
- Propagated by ‘memory activists’
- Based on ‘selection and exclusion’
- Depends on the ‘efficiency of political pedagogy’
- Show a high degree of ‘homogeneity’
- Relies on symbols and rites that ‘enhance emotions of empathy and identification’
What is an international system?
The standard story that we tell about the international system, is that it is about states. We live in a world of
states and those states are sovereign. The states have no authorities above others. There is no universal
government. UN exists but does not matter very much.
- Basic unit: state, sovereign state
- Social practices: borders, flags, anthems
- Rules and norms: sovereign equality
- Implications: anarchy, security dilemma, violence
Security dilemma
We can never trust our neighbors, there are no general rules. This leads to violence.
= A term used in international relations and refers to a situation in which, under anarchy, actions by
a state intended to heighten its security, such as increasing its military strength, committing to use weapons or
making alliances, can lead other states to respond with similar measures, producing increased tensions that
create conflict, even when no side really desires it.
HOOFDSTUK 2: China and East Asia
For much of its history, China was the dominant country in East Asia and international relations in this part of
the world were, more than anything, organized by the Chinese and on Chinese terms. China itself was an
empire but the international system of which China was the center concerned the external relations of the
empire — its relations with the rest of East Asia.
Solar system
China is the sun around which other and far smaller political entities, located at increasing distances from the
center, are circulating in their respective orbits.
The Chinese dealt with neighbors to the north and the west of the country.
The people to the north and the west constituted permanent threats. They were nomads who grazed their
animals on the enormous steppes of inner Asia. Despite their economic and technological backwardness, they
had access to the most advanced military technology of the day — fast horses — and in addition they were
highly skilled archers. Since the terrain was flat and since there were few natural obstacles in their way, it was
easy for the nomads to raid Chinese farming communities.
China was periodically invaded and two major dynasties were founded by
- Tribes from the steppes, the Yuan, 1271–1368, which was of Mongol origin
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, - The last imperial dynasty, the Qing, 1644–1911, which was Manchu.
The Chinese dealt with neighbors to the south and the east.
They were far easier to manage. Since the Himalayas effectively blocked any invasion from the south, there
were no military threats from this direction and, instead, communications took place across the ocean. From
Korea, Japan and states throughout Southeast Asia the Chinese emperors demanded tributes. The foreigners
were required to make the journey to the Chinese capital at regular intervals and present gifts to the emperor.
In this way the Chinese were confirmed in their view of themselves. They really were the country at the center
of the world — the “Middle Kingdom” — to which all human beings paid tribute.
What does it mean to identify a Chinese international system?
Because China was a dominant power it defined how other countries had to position themselves to China and
how to behave themselves. It could set the rules of international orders.
What is China?
- A sovereign state. One state within multiple states.
- A sovereign state today, but not historically.
- The dominant country in East Asia.
- The dominant world powers.
Did not always achieved dominance. There were periods where China was challenged.
Until the 20th century it was not a nation-state. It was a region.
2.1 The Warring States Period
What made a person Chinese, and what brought a sense of unity to the Chinese people, was not state power
but more than anything a shared set of rituals and seasonal celebrations.
2.1.1 The first rulers — the Shang dynasty, 1600–1046 BCE
Engaged in human sacrifice and ancestor worship. They were also the first to use characters — divinations
inscribed on so-called “oracle bones” — as a means of writing. While human sacrifice soon ceased, ancestor
worship and the unique Chinese form of writing have survived to this day.
2.1.2 The Zhou dynasty, 1050–777 BCE
The kings became more powerful and the territory they controlled increased dramatically. The Zhou kings
regarded themselves as “Sons of Heaven” who had been given a “Mandate of Heaven” to rule the country. This
mandate could be revoked, however, by any rebels who could demonstrate that they were powerful enough to
take over the state. A successful uprising was proof that Heaven had withdrawn its favors and instead
bestowed them on the rebels.
Towards the end of the Zhou dynasty, political power began to fragment as regional leaders who had been
given land by the kings asserted their independence. Eventually, seven separate states emerged, and they were
constantly at war with each other. This era has been referred to as the “Warring States period,” during 475–
221 BCE.
2.1.3 Warring States period
The seven independent states engaged in traditional forms of power politics: they forged alliances, made
treaties and fought battles, and they took turns in the position as the most powerful state in the system. The
armies were enormous, counting up to perhaps one million men, and it was said that some hundreds of
thousands of soldiers might die in a single battle.
This was a bleak time of insecurity and war, but the Warring States period was also a time of great economic
progress. Military competition, helped spur innovation. The imperative for all seven states, as the popular
dictum put it, was to “enrich the nation and to strengthen the army.” This was first of all the case as far as
military hardware was concerned, with new forms of swords, crossbows and chariots being invented. In
addition, each state became far better organized and administrated.
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, - Taxes were collected more efficiently, the independent power of the nobility was suppressed, and a
new class of bureaucrats took over the running of state affairs and organized their work according to
formal procedures.
- To this end, farming techniques were developed, and major irrigation projects undertaken.
- Economic markets developed as well, with coins being used to pay for goods coming from all over
China but also from distant lands far beyond, including Manchuria, Korea, and even India.
The intellectual developments
The Warring States period was known as the age of the “Hundred Schools.” This was the time when all major
Chinese systems of thought first came to be established. Eventually nine of these schools dominated over the
others, a group which included Confucianism, Legalism, Daoism, and Mohism. These teachings were
propagated by scholars who wandered from one court to the other, looking for a ruler who would be
interested in their ideas. Those who were successful found themselves jobs as advisers and courtiers.
Kongzi, 551–479 BCE — better known as Confucius
Is the most famous of these wandering scholars. Kongzi rose from lowly jobs as a cow-herder and clerk to
become an adviser to the king of Lu himself. Kongzi’s philosophy emphasized the importance of personal
conduct and he insisted that the virtue of the rulers was more important than the formal rules by which the
state was governed. Society in the end consists of nothing but hierarchical pairs — relations between father
and son, husband and wife, older and younger brother, ruler and subject, and between friends. The inferior
party in each pair should submit to the power and will of the superior, but the superior has the duty to care for
the inferior, to look after his or her welfare. A well-ordered society is a society in which these duties are
faithfully carried out.
Daoism
Daoism is a philosophy associated with Laozi, a contemporary of Kongzi’s. Laozi is the author of the Daodejing,
a text of aphorisms and assorted teachings. Dao, “the way,” does not only provide you with religious wisdom
but also hands-on advice for how to live a successful life. Daoist monks emphasized the spiritual dimensions of
human existence and sought to communicate with the spirits of nature. In addition, Daoism has had an impact
on politics. Its spiritualism and disdain for formal rules have been an inspiration for several political movements
which have risen up against the political authorities.
Legalism/Fajia – most direct impact in practical politics
Legalism is the school of political philosophy which the Chinese know as fajia. The law was indeed important to
them but only as a tool of statecraft. The Legalists assumed that all people act only in their self-interest and
that they follow only moral codes which benefit themselves. It is consequently only the law and its
enforcement which can keep people in line and guarantee peace and order in society. The law must therefore
be clear enough for everyone to understand it, and the punishments which it requires must be harsh enough to
ensure that everyone obeys.
In the end, it was only the state and its survival that mattered to the Legalists. The ruler was free to act in
whichever way he chose as long as it benefited the state. Alliances could be made but also broken; ostensibly
friendly countries could be attacked without warning; peace negotiations could serve as a pretext for starting
another war, and so on.
Terracotta army
Collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China. It is a form
of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE with the purpose of protecting the emperor in his
afterlife.
- Succession of imperial dynasty.
- Dynasties were never secure - Always at risk of being attacked, threat of outside
- Degree of insecurity had modified the development of the states.
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, 2.2 The development of the Chinese state
The Chinese state would all be referred to as “emperors” and the country itself referred to as an “empire.”
Several of the dynasties were not Chinese at all, but established by foreign invaders.
Most important dynasties:
- Han
- Tang
- Song
- Yuan (Mongolic origin)
- Ming
- Qing (Mongolic origin).
2.2.1 Han dynasty
The Han dynasty lasted for well over four hundred years. The Han state organized a proper bureaucracy run by
a professional class of administrators whose salaries were paid by taxing key commodities, such as salt.
- The Han emperors made Confucianism into the official philosophy of the state. All administrators were
supposed to read the Confucian classics and to serve the people with virtue and benevolence.
- The Han state took charge of society and organized economic activities, including the building of roads
and canals. Large state monopolies were established for the production and sale of salt, iron and
liquor.
- Caravan routes first were developed which connected China with Central Asia, India, and the world
beyond. (Network of rail stations)
- Han-era coins, with their distinctive square holes at the center, were to remain the standard means of
payment until the Tang dynasty.
Silk roads – Caravan Routes
Although the Roman Empire and Han China had no direct connections with each other, the goods traded along
these routes did. The classical silk roads were not dominated by the Chinese, neither managed. They were used
by the Chinese. They did dominate and established the silk roads.
- Chinese silk became a fashionable item among Roman elites and Roman glassware ended up in China.
(silk roads)
- The caravan routes brought foreign people and ideas to China too, such as Buddhism, which has its
origin in India.
2.2.2 Tang dynasty
Best remembered today for its cultural achievements. It was during Tang that arts like calligraphy and
landscape painting were first developed.
- Economically the country was thriving. China-wide markets in land, labor, and natural resources were
developed, and many technical innovations took place, including paper-making, and woodblock
printing.
- There was extensive mining and manufacturing of cast iron and even steel, and trade was brisk along
the caravan routes.
- China’s population grew quickly, numbering some fifty million people.
- In order to get a job as a government official, you were required to pass a demanding test on
Confucian philosophy and on the classics of Chinese literature.
- The Tang dynasty was wide open to the rest of the world, with foreign goods, fashions, and ideas
entering China along the caravan routes.
Tang dynasty China exercised a strong cultural influence over all countries with which it came into contact. This
was, for example, the time when Japan, Korea, and Vietnam adopted a Chinese-style writing system and when
Confucian philosophy and Chinese arts spread far and wide.
During the Tang period it was very fashionable to be Chinese.
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,Through renewed contacts with India, Buddhism was further established. Chinese men married women from
Central Asia. The Tang dynasty was a cosmopolitan empire where people from all over the world would mingle.
2.2.3 Song dynasty (960-1279)
- Important technological inventions, including gunpowder and the compass.
- Era of great military challenges, especially from nomadic polities.
- China’s population doubled in size during Song.
The Song dynasty came to a final end when the Mongols deposed the emperor and established a new dynasty,
the Yuan.
2.2.4 Yuan dynasty
Of Mongolic Origin, lasted less than 100 years. In 1368, the Mongols were replaced by the Ming
2.2.5 Ming dynasty (1368-1644)
There was now a China-wide market for consumer goods such as fabrics and foodstuffs, as well as for prestige
items like porcelain and furniture.
- Porcelain vases and luxurious gardens.
- The Chinese state returned to its Confucian roots after the Mongolian interruption. Administrators
were once again selected according to their knowledge of the Confucian classics.
The Zing He voyages
- Brings a ‘giraffe’ to Beijing
- Subject of historiographical controversy
It was not a journey of friendship and exploration and trade but colonialism. They were part of a colonial
project. They basically colonised Thailand and Nigeria. They were successful at it in the case of Thailand. The
vessels were equipped with the best military stuff, gun balls…
The exploration stopped and there will not be mixing with other cultures anymore. Ended abruptly with the
Ming dynasty.
The Ming rulers had little knowledge of the steppe and little appreciation for trade. The Ming dynasty was a
time when the issue of foreign trade was hotly contested between various court factions. The most successful
trader among them was Zheng He. He brought thousands of vessels with him on no fewer than seven far-flung
journeys of exploration and trade which took his fleet to Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, and even to the east
coast of Africa.
Yet, soon after Zheng He returned from these journeys, foreign travel was banned and all ocean-going ships
destroyed. The Confucians at court decided that foreign contacts on this scale were too disruptive of the
Chinese way of life. China increasingly closed itself off from the rest of the world. Not coincidentally perhaps,
extensive work on the structures known as the “Great Wall of China” took place at this time.
2.2.6 Qing dynasty (1644-1912)
The last imperial dynasty. It was established by the Manchu tribes. The Qing emperors adopted many
institutions such as the bureaucracy and the entrance examinations, and also many customs, such as the
elaborate rituals which the emperors were required to perform.
They were proud of their Manchu heritage. Manchu princes were taught how to ride a horse and shoot arrows;
at the imperial court in Beijing, visitors were often treated to displays of equestrian arts or, in winter, to skating
competitions.
The Qing rulers were Confucians, but they were at the same time great patrons of Buddhist temples, especially
of the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet.
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, Two important and successful rulers: Kongxi (1661-1722) & Qianlong (1735-1795)
Taiwan was incorporated into the empire, together with vast areas to the north and the west, including much
of Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang.
Yet the Qing policies on foreign trade closely mirrored those of the Ming. During the Qing period too, there
were prohibitions and controls on such activity.
The Macartney embassy (1792/1793)
There was so much for the Europeans to buy in China, and so many people to sell Europe-made goods to, yet
the Chinese were very reluctant to grant them access. But they worried about the social and cultural
consequences of a foreign presence in the country. Eventually, trade was only allowed with one city,
Guangzhou in the south, known as “Canton” to the foreigners. However, the British in particular regarded this
as an unacceptable affront, and they dispatched a series of embassies to Beijing to try to convince the emperor
to open up the country to their merchants. The most famous such embassy was led by George Macartney in
1792.
Once they arrived in Beijing, however, the British were required to go through the same ceremony as all tribute
bearers. This included the ketou, the “three prostrations, and knockings of the head,” which was the traditional
way in which visitors showed their submission to the imperial throne. Macartney, however, refused to go
through with the ritual. To him, the ketou reeked of religious worship, and he found it degrading to his country
and himself. This, to the Chinese officials, made no sense. They could never understand why the British had
made the long journey, and brought along all those presents, only to refuse to go through with the last set of
formalities. The British were told in no uncertain terms that if they refused to ketou they might as well go
home. They never got a trade deal with China.
2.3 The overland system
Why did China hold a particular attraction for these nomadic polities? Why did they pose such challenge for
China?
Nomads are always potentially on the move, and since they never stay long enough in one place, they cannot
accumulate many resources. The Chinese, by contrast, were overwhelmingly farmers and some were city-
dwellers, meaning that they lived sedentary lives and stayed in one place. Every Chinese family had a home
where they gathered possessions which they were prepared to defend with their lives. To the nomads this
constituted an obvious temptation. The nomads were interested in all kinds of resources as long as they were
portable — gold and silver, animals, and women and children who could be turned into slaves.
It was always difficult for the Chinese to defend themselves against these threats. The purpose was to raid
China and get their hands on the goods. The military balance was in favour of the Mongolian people. The
Chinese army was more developed than the Mongolian tribes. Mongolian people had superior horses. Chinese
could not pursue the Mongolian people. They reached the steppe before the Chinese.
The perennial question for the Chinese was how best to deal with enemies such as these. The most obvious
option was to pursue a defensive strategy, and this is what the Chinese did for much of their history. One way
to do this was to build walls.
First way: Defensive strategy
- They built walls, defensive infrastructure.
Second: Offensive strategy
- They push their frontier further west and North.
- Pushed the Mongols further into the Steppes. The Chinese built fortified towns on the steppe, moved
convicts there and encouraged ordinary people to migrate to the frontier.
- Not a real solution. The frontiers became the new targets for the Mongols.
- The Mongols did not have to travel as far as before. New target for the Nomadic people.
Third: Common institutions
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