Module 1 – What and why qualitative research?
Reading 1: Merriam (2014) – Chapter 1 : What is Qualitative Research?
To research means to inquire into, or investigate something in a systematic manner. Basic or pure
research is motivated by intellectual interest and has its goal to extend knowledge, whereas applied
research is to improve the quality of a certain practice or discipline. Examples of applied research
are evaluation- and action research, in which examines and judges accomplishments in the former,
and addresses a specific problem within a specific setting in the latter.
I. Experimental approaches try to determine cause (of events) and descriptive designs
(surveys) are intended to systematically describe characteristics and the relation between
events. These designs are called Quantitative, because they focus on how much or how
many, and results are usually presented in numerical form. To back up statements, data is
used to describe relationships.
II. Rather than determining cause and effect, predicting or describing, we might be interested in
the meaning of a phenomenon for those involved. Qualitative researchers are interested in
experiences, personal constructs and meaning. In-depth questions are about understanding
experiences and call for a qualitative design. Qualitative data is gained through observing and
questioning the world, in order to find evidence of meaning.
Positivist orientation assumes that reality exists and is observable, stable and measurable. It includes
the establishment of scientific laws. Branched philosophies from the positivist tree believe that there
is a unity in science and that, using empirical evidence, a distinguish can be made between true and
false claims, as well as more and less plausible ones. The world is yet to be explained. Whereas
interpretive research assumes that reality is socially constructed and there cannot be one single,
observable reality. Knowledge is not found, it is constructed. Interpretivist research often entails
qualitative research. An already interpreted world, is re-interpreted.
Qualitative research is an umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques which seek to
describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not frequency, of
certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world. There is an interest in
understanding the meaning people have constructed. Meaning as in the way people make sense of
their world and the experiences they have. Four key characteristics of qualitative research are:
1. The focus is on process, understanding, and meaning;
2. The researcher is the primary instrument of data collection and analysis;
3. The process is inductive; and; The product is richly descriptive.
Qualitative research works from an inductive Quantitative research works from a deductive
approach, building understanding from approach, justifying propositions from
interpretations of evidence. Theory is created empirical data. Theory is tested and
and linked to context. Evidence of meaning is generalizable. Evidence of frequency is sought
sought after by means of subjective data, after by means of objective data, gathered in
gathered in small samples but with deep larger samples but with little understanding.
understanding.
Qualitative researchers look for meaning through case study research, ethnography or
grounded theory. The aim is to explain and give meaning. There is an emic-perspective,
meaning insider-view. Researcher’s intuition could be an asset.
Quantitative researchers look for truth through surveys, laboratory experiments and
statistical analysis. The aim is to describe and generalize. There is an etic-perspective,
meaning outsider-view. Researcher’s influence must be minimize.
,If quantitative research looks for the truth, why do we need qualitative research? Well, ..
1) Context-dependency The understanding of social phenomenon highly depend on context.
We misunderstand or misinterpret these phenomena if we ignore the context in which they
occurred. We need to understand boundary conditions, meaning the when, where, and why
of the event. It is this context that helps explain why someone acted the way they did, and
this is best understood by talking to someone.
2) Interpretation Social phenomena have heavy subjective aspects that cannot be captured
through quantifiable measures and cannot be understood without tapping into each case
deeply. Move from a large sample with little understanding of underlying mechanisms, to a
smaller sample with a deep understanding of the case.
3) Deep understanding To approach the causal dynamics, we need to get close enough to
social realities and know them from the inside-perspective. To understand how A resulted in
B, we need to get close to A and B, rather than observing from a distance. Move from
description to explanation.
Practice-question: Describe three ways that qualitative
research differs from quantitative research and explain why
these differences are important.
Interpretivist versus positivist approach. Qualitative research
believes that the world is already interpreted, but can be re-
interpreted by constructing data with participants. Reality will
depend on experience. Whereas quantitative research believes
there is only one true reality, which we can measure.
Qualitative versus quantitative data. To measure this one true
reality, quantitative research uses objective, numerical data
from large samples. The search for evidence of frequency in
this large sample allows for generalization. Qualitative research
in contrast uses purposeful sampling and chooses to go for a
smaller sample, with more depth to the subjective data which
is also linked to context. The reason for this, is because
qualitative research methods are designed to observe and
question the world, to find evidence of meaning. They do not
want to determine if and how A affects B, but why this is so.
Inductive versus deductive logic. Qualitative research methods
are used to build understanding from interpretations of
evidence. Theory is created. Rather than in quantitative
settings, theory is tested.
Reading 2: Myers (2013) – Chapter 2: Overview of Qualitative Research
Research is defined as an original investigation undertaken in order to contribute to knowledge and
understanding in a particular field. It is a creative activity leading to the production of new
knowledge.
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,Reading 3: Myers (2013) – Chapter 3: Research Design
A research design is the plan for an entire qualitative research projects. It says what you are going to
do and involves deciding upon various components of the research project: Your philosophical
assumptions, research method, data collection techniques, and approach to qualitative data analysis
and write-up. It is a road map of the project. The design serves as a proposal, in which you are
convincing the reader that your research is significant, viable, relevant, interesting, and that you are
capable of conducting the research.
All qualitative research projects need to have some kind of theoretical framework, which may be
developed before you begin the empirical research, during the project, or after (as in grounded
theory – chapter 9).
Using deductive reasoning, a researcher starts top-down and begins with a general theory about the
topic. This can be operationalized into hypotheses, which can be tested with empirical data. The
hypotheses are then confirmed or not. Using inductive reasoning however, a researcher starts
bottom-up and begins by collecting data about the topic. Hopefully, patterns will begin to emerge,
leading to one or more tentative hypotheses, which can be used to develop into a more general
theory. Both types can be used for qualitative research, although inductive reasoning is more open-
ended and exploratory, which is where the key features of qualitative research reside.
Qualitative research project model:
I. Research philosophies:
Every research project is based on some form of philosophical stance about the nature of the world
and how knowledge of this world can be obtained. For example, if you are intending to conduct a
positivist study, then most likely you will think of your research design as one involving the testing of
one or more hypotheses. If you are intending to conduct an interpretive study, however, then most
likely you will think of your research design as involving the exploration of a research topic or theory,
rather than testing it.
II. Research method:
In the following four readings, four research methods will be discussed. These are action research
(chapter 6), caste study research (chapter 7), ethnography (chapter 8) and grounded theory (chapter
9). These are the most commonly used methods for business and management.
III. Data collection techniques & analysis
Once you have decided on your research method, it’s time to pick data collection techniques. The
ones discussed here are interviews, fieldwork, and using documents. For example, case study
researchers will often tend to go for interviews, whereas ethnographic researchers make extensive
use of participant observation and other types of fieldwork. The choice will depend on your choice of
topic, method, and availability of data. The availability is crucial to the successful outcome of any
research project. There are literally dozens of ways to analyze qualitative data. Go use google.
IV. Written record
The last step in a project is to write it up. This can be in the form of a thesis, a book, a conference
paper, and so forth. Various writing styles can be included as well.
, Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
Check
Advantages of Qualitative Research Advantages of Quantitative Research
Qualitative research is best if you want to study a Quantitative research is best if you want to
particular subject in depth (e.g. in one or a few have a large sample size and you want to
organizations). It is good for exploratory research, generalize to a large population. In this case
when the particular topic is new and there is not the objective is to study a particular topic
much previously published research on that topic. It across many people or many organizations.
is also ideal for studying the social, cultural, and You want to find out trends or patterns that
political aspects of people and organizations. apply in many different situations. Various
statistical techniques can be used to analyze
Disadvantages of Qualitative Research your data.
It is often difficult to generalize to a larger
population. You can generalize from qualitative Disadvantages of Quantitative Research
research, but not by using sampling logic. For Many of the social and cultural aspects of
instance, if you conduct three in-depth case studies organizations are lost or are treated in a
of three organizations, a sample size of three does superficial manner. The ‘context’ is usually
not count for much in statistical terms. Three cases treated as ‘noise’ or as something that gets in
are no better than one. Therefore it is normally the way. The quantitative researcher trades
impossible for qualitative researchers to make context for the ability to generalize across a
generalizations from a sample to a population. population.
, Exam practice questions module 1:
Describe three ways that qualitative research differs from quantitative research,
and explain why these differences are important.
I. Interpretivist vs Positivist approach
Knowledge is not found, it is constructed. There is not one single, observable reality.
Data is subjective, not objective, and should always be linked to specific context.
II. Qualitative vs Quantitative data
Qual tries to find evidence of meaning, rather than evidence of frequency.
Qual focuses on emic perspective, where researcher’s intuition can be an asset.
Quant focuses on etic perspective, where researcher’s influence should be minimized.
III. Inductive vs Deductive logic
Qual tries to create theory, whereas Quant tries to test theory.
Why should you choose qualitative research over quantitative research,
and provide an example of a situation in which you would apply this.
I. Context dependency
If we ignore the context of a research, we misunderstand and misinterpret social
phenomena. It is important to understand the boundary conditions of when, where and why
things happen.
II. Interpretation
Social phenomena have heavy subjective aspects that cannot be captured with quantifiable
measures. Numbers limit social realities, so, you have to tap into each case deeply, to truly
understand the social phenomena. Otherwise, again, you might misinterpret it entirely.
III. Deep understanding
To approach the causal dynamics actually, it is important to get close to social realities and
get to understand them from inside. You go beyond the “if’’ and “why’’, but even dive deeper
into the “how’’. You move from understand if A affects B, to how this occurs.
For example, the effects of COVID-19 on Maternity Care professionals cannot be fully understood by
looking at numbers. By checking working hours, employee retention, sick leave frequency, etc. Much
more could be at play, so it is important to dive deep into the case to understand the effects, if you
want to be able to effectively combat the negative impact COVID-19 provides.
