Week 1
1. Why do we see the 1600’s as the beginning of psychology and the 1950’s as the end?
In the 1600’s, the focus of science switched from ‘why’ to ‘how’, and in the 1950’s
cognitive neuropsychology started being the most important view of psychology.
2. Which main subject/dilemma of psychology does the Buikhuisen case touch upon?
The nature vs nurture dilemma.
3. What was the difference between Wundt-1 and Wundt-2?
Wundt-1 focussed on what he believed could be studied scientifically. His topics were
constrained and he did psychological experiments when he believed it was possible. He
saw psychology as an experimental science Wundt-2, on the other hand, studied topics
involving the conscious and creative mind. This, he believed, was too complex for
experiments. You could argue that Wundt-1 was more of a scientist, and Wundt-2 a
philosopher.
4. What was the first book written which touched upon the subject of psychology?
De Anima, of Aristotle
5. What is the psyche according to Aristotle? Why was this idea quite remarkable?
According to Aristotle, the psyche was the power of living, sensing and knowing. He thus
believed in biology and psychology, which was new for his time; In the history of
psychology, the biological approach (as found in physiology) was very different from the
philosophical approach.
6. Why did Aristotle’s ideas fit well with the church?
He made a clear distinction between heaven and earth, and he believed each object had its
own natural place. For the church, the latter was convenient, as a ‘natural place’ meant
that all individuals were ordained to the tasks given to them at birth.
7. How did mechanists view the world?
Mechanists were concerned with how the universe operated. They saw the world as
material and analysable in terms of atoms. This involves analysis and reductionism. For
mechanists, atoms could be distinguished on the basis of a few 'objective' characteristics
or 'qualities', in particular, their shape, size and (relative) position (or motion). These
qualities were seen as objective because they could be quantified. For this reason, they
are called the ‘primary qualities of matter’. The secondary qualities are those that cannot
be measured.
, 8. What was the only way to analyse a phenomenon according to mechanists and why?
Through analysis and quantification. This was seen as the only reliable and useful way, as
the results of the measurements did not depend on the observer.
9. What is reductionism?
Reductionism involves reducing a range of phenomena at one level of organization to
phenomena that belong to a lower level of organization. Reductionism is typical of the
mechanistic approach in science
10. Was Plato more a rationalist or empiricist? What is the difference between the two?
Rationalists believed main knowledge and understanding could be derived from rational
thinking, and thus our own mind. Empiricists believed that main knowledge was derived
from perceptions around us, and thus from our environment. Plato was more of a
rationalist, as he believed our knowledge was innate.
11. How did Bacon believe we could reach certain knowledge?
Bacon was an empiricist, but he believed observations could result in certain knowledge
only if they were done with the method of induction. This entails that you do
observations and execute experiments in a systematic way. Then, the results of these
experiments and observations have to be presented in an organized fashion. This way, he
argued, you could see a ‘pattern’ in the results.
12. What are the three main themes/dilemmas of psychology?
Nature vs nurture
Mind body
Cognition & Emotion
Week 2
1. Why did Descartes not appreciate medieval philosophy?
He believed medieval philosophy focussed too much on ‘why’, which in his view
resulted in many meaningless and useless ideas, instead of the ‘how’, which led to more
secure and practical knowledge.
2. What is the difference between metaphysics and epistemology?
Epistemology is the study of knowledge, and it is concerned with how and why we
acquire knowledge. Metaphysics is the study of all the fundamental features of existence,
and it is concerned with questions such as ‘are there different forms of existence?’ and ‘Is
there one true substance?’/
, 3. What is scepticism?
Scepticism is the idea that we could never be certain of our acquired knowledge.
4. What is Descartes’ answer to scepticism?
Descartes believed that we could be sure of one thing; the fact that we exist. (I think,
therefore I am). Because we can be sure of that, we can use this as an axiom to build
upon new knowledge of which we can be certain. ‘I doubt everything’, furthermore, is a
paradox in itself.. So you can be certain that you exist, even if you are deceived.
5. What do rationalists and empiricists agree on as opposed to scepticism?
That we can obtain true knowledge
6. How does deduction fit with rationalism?
Deduction is the use of logic and premises to obtain certain knowledge. Because we use
our own innate intelligence/logic to arrive at a certain conclusion, it can be seen as a form
of rationalism, as rationalism believes in knowledge through rational thinking.
7. What qualities does Descartes see as a measure of truth?
Knowledge needs to be clear and distinct.
8. Which rules do axioms have in rationalism?
Axioms act like premises and statements in rationalism. Because we can be certain of
these, we can prove other statements and lead us to logical results.
9. What role do ‘animal spirits’ play according to Descartes?
For Descartes the body is like a hydraulic system: it moves because the heart pumps fluid
(blood) through the tubes (arteries, veins), which makes the body (arms, legs) move.
He extended this principle to the nerves and the senses. The nerves would thus also be a
tube through which fluid flows, and this fluid was what he called ‘animal spirits’. These
explain how a reflex works.
10. What are the defining characteristics of matter according to Descartes?
Matter takes up space and can be studied scientifically. So spatial extension is a defining
characteristic of matter.
11. Why does Descartes believe psychology cannot be a science?
Descartes believed that the soul could not be studied, as it did not have any spatial
extension. Because psychology involves the soul, and because you cannot replicate
psychological conditions, it cannot be studied as a science.
