Samenvatting
Summary of all articles of Moblities, Travel & Networks
A summary of al the articles for the lectures.
[Meer zien]Voorbeeld 4 van de 33 pagina's
Voorbeeld 4 van de 33 pagina's
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Voorbeeld van de inhoud
Summary literature readings Mobilities, Transport & NetworksLecture 1
Cascetta, E. (2009). Transportation systems analysis: models and applications (Vol. 29). Springer Science
& Business Media. (pp. 89-100, Chapter 3 up to 3.3.1):
Random utility theory: every individual is a rational decision-maker, maximizing utility relative to his or
her choices.
- Generic decision-maker considers mutually exclusive alternatives that constitute her choice set,
which differs for choice makers (transport mode (without/with driver license)
- Assigning perceived utility or ‘attractiveness’ to each alternative and selects the one maximizing
utility
- Assigned utility per choice depend on number of measurable characteristics (attributes) of the
alternative and of the decisionmaker
- Assigned utility by a decisionmaker to an alternative is not known with certainty by an external
observer; but possible to express the predictability that the decision maker will select an
alternative, conditional on her choice set
Various factors account for differences in perceived utility by indivivual decision makers and systematic
utility common to all decision makers with equal values of the attributes; related to the model (a, b, c) and
to the decision maker (d, e):
(a) Errors in measuring attributes in systematic utility (aggregation errors, averages etc)
(b) Not directly observable attributes are not included (travel comfort, time reliability)
(c) Instrumental attributes that imperfectly represent the actual attributes that influence the
alternatives’ perceive utility (model preference attributes replacing variables as comfort etc.)
(d) Variability, or variations in taste and preferences among different decision makers, and for an
individual decision-maker, over time (different ideas on walking distance, different contexts:
physical/physiological conditions)
(e) Errors in the evaluation of attributes by the decision maker (estimation of travel time)
Very technical with a lot of formulae; read this section in the book itself.
Ben-Elia, E., & Ettema, D. (2011). Rewarding rush-hour avoidance: A study of commuters’ travel
behavior. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 45(7), 567-582.
Commuters’ habitual behavior of rush-hour driving and constraints related to household and work
schedules are important factors that limit the positive impact of rewarding on car travel
When incentive stops, they return to old behaviour
Motivation theory: with intrinsic motivation, the change of behaviour is more likely to be sustained
Results of temporary measures often disappear when the incentive stops
The results of this study suggest that rewards can be effective tools in changing commuting behaviour in
the short run (unsure whether it can be sustained on long rung without rewards)
- Specifically rewards reduce the shares of rush-hour driving, shift driving to off-peak times and
increase the shares of public transport, cycling and working from home.
- Mediating factors include socio-demographic characteristics, scheduling constraints and work
time flexibility, habitual behaviour, attitudes to commuting alternatives, the availability of travel
information and even the weather.
Socioeconomic:
- Gender: men are more likely to avoid rush hour than woman woman have more time
constraints (household, child raising obligations limits ability to change time schedule)
, - Higher education: less likely to drive later. Education as proxy for latent income effects key in
determining willingness to pay for travel purposes and value of time savings higher real
incomes less likely to be sensitive for marginal monetary gain
Flexibility (especially at work place) is key in promoting changes in travel behaviour.
Travel behaviour is often habitual; repeated decisions which loose intention and become routinized
- Effort: a similar relative response demands more rush-hour avoidance by frequent drivers, than
less frequent ones higher effort involved for high frequency rush-hour drivers
o Real-time travel info may reduce perceived effort and promote self confidence in the
ability to mange rush-hour avoidance
- The added value of additional rewards depends on the amount already gained marginal utility
of reward decreases extra rewards gained by high frequency have lower impact
- Usual departure time was decisive factor affecting choice to depart earlier, as well as preferred
start of work time, a proxy for preferred arrival time
- Previous use of other transport modes contributes to choice not to drive
- Importance of status qua as point of reference creates bias in evaluation of alternatives:
between usual behaviour and required change: the smaller, the more likely to adopt change
- Behaviour change involves exploration and learning based on practicing and reinforcement
fundamental law effect: behaviour will be sustained if positive outcome is experienced
Attitudes towards travel alternatives influence choice of travel modes
Theory of planned behaviour (TPB): positive beliefs regarding a behaviour change leads to
positive attitude towards certain behaviour that will influence the intention to consciously
engage in it beliefs about alternative modes influence choice of avoidance behaviour
o Positive beliefs (commuting by public transport/cycling as realistic alternative):
discourages driving and encourages to switch modes away from car
Importance of norms:
o Personal norms: self expectations or specific action in specific situations; feelings of
moral obligations to behave in a certain way (e.g. environmentally friendly)
Availability of travel time information effects behaviour and risk attitudes
- Easy access to real-time information leads to later driving (after rush-hour)
- Decision-making in a changed environment increased the need for information about the
outcomes of alternatives
- Active information acquisition and choice of avoidance behaviour are related
Weather conditions also influence mode choice.
Rewards in changing communters’ behaviour seems to work in the short run; not sure whether the
change can be sustained on the long run without reward
- Reward influences the magnitude of change (increase or decrease in rush-hour avoidance,
choosing how to avoid rush hour (driving at other times, switching modes, work from home)), but
is not determined by the reward, but rather by different factors relating to participants and their
particular situation
Drawbacks of the study:
- Self selection to reward types: makes it more difficult in a quasi-experimental design to validate some
of the outcomes (e.g. did information contribute to driving later or were Yeti users more prone to
drive later due to pre-arrangements).
- Lack of a control group of participants
,Gärling, T., & Fujii, S. (2009). Travel behavior modification: Theories, methods, and programs. The
expanding sphere of travel behaviour research, 97-128.
Travel Demand Management (TDM) measures:
- Physical change measures: improving public transport, infrastructure for walking, land use planning to
encourage shorter travel times, technical changes (cars more energy-efficient)
- Legal policies: prohibiting car traffic in city centres, parking control, speed limits
- Economic policies: taxation of cars and fuel, road/congestion pricing, kilometer charging
- Information and education measures: individualized marketing, public information campaigns,
feedback about consequences of behaviour, social modeling
Distinctions:
1. Pull-measures (making alternative modes relatively more attractive) vs. Push-measures (making
chosen mode relatively less attractive or even prohibited)
2. Changing available travel options (road congestion pricing increasing monetary costs and
decreases congestion) vs. changing car users (informational and educational measures)
Unless forced by social, monetary, or physical means, change in travel behaviour is determined by change
in beliefs, attitudes and/or values.
- Forced change in travel behaviour only causes change in beliefs, attitudes and/or values when
outcome is positive; otherwise forced change results in increased resistance
- Changing people’s behaviour by monetary payoffs only temporary behavioural change that doesn’t
remain after monetary payoff is discontinued (internal changes are necessary)
Beliefs = perceived likelihood of the behavioural outcome
Cognitive skills, beliefs, preference or choice and situational constraints are proximal determinants of
mundane routine behaviour, like daily travel
Permanent behavioural change requiring sacrifices (effort to acquire cognitive skills needed to
overcome situational constraints, and breaking resistance to changing beliefs) is mediated
(motivated) by changes in enduring dispositions such as attitudes, that are related to values
(higher-order abstract attitudes closely connected to ‘self-identity’; moral, environment-
protective and pro-socieal or collective values)
Change in beliefs, attitudes and values likely results in changes in travel behaviour
Importance of feedback:
- Hedonic feedback: positive monetary payoff increases person well-being (positive feedback)
- Incentive and informational feedback: if payoff is predictable, it provides informational feedback
strengthening beliefs about situation-outcome contingencies
Informational feedback in analysis: tenet of behaviour as goal-directed behavioural change is
mediated by change in goal (or intention) related to attitudes and values
o Negative feedback informs about discrepancy between current state (e.g. frequency of travel)
and the change goal (e.g. reduction of car use)
o Positive feedback informs about the distance from an undesirable goal (e.g. costs exceeding the
household budget)
, Feedback often also has no effect: feedback to vague, delayed, intermittent or probalistic. People also
misperceive feedback (falsely interpreted to confirm expectations). Behaviour may be controlled by
feedforward: a goal is likely to be followed by that a plan is formed for how to change behaviour (plan
may lead to behaviour change despite lacking feedback)
Influence can be change in payoffs, but also different forms of social influence (pressure from family,
peers, society and internalized social norms as outcome of socialization process) or persuasion. Also
indirect influences resulting in changes (worse household economy because of increased spending)
Learning makes adopting to changing circumstances possible. Can be implicit (automatic (effortless),
immediate) or explicit (effortful, sometimes requiring extended practice). Learning can result in changes in
attitudes after hedonic feedback and changes in cognitive skills and beliefs after informational feedback.
Changes in beliefs can result in changes in attitudes, possibly resulting in actual behaviour change,
depending on situational factors.
Theoretical Targeted change Type of influence Type of Type of
perspective regulation learning
Choice theories Choice (optional travel Changes in travel Hedonic None
(maximum utility) behaviour; destinations, options feedback
departure times, routes,
modes costs, time)
Travel demand modelling. May be applied to understand and forecast effects on
choice of changes in travel options (time, cost)
Activity-based approach; choice dependent on biological needs, obligations, or
desires to engage in various activities at different places; changes in activity result
in changes in travel behaviour
Attitude theories Beliefs, attitudes, values, Changes in travel Hedonic Implicit,
(TPB: Theory of intentions, travel options, social feedback, explicit
planned behaviour influence informational
behaviour) feedback
Not confined to choice (e.g. reduction of car use is not necessarily the outcome of
a choice among modes), social influence and effects of learning (changes in
beliefs, attitudes and values) are accommodated.
Based on attitude toward performing a behavior results from salient positive or
negative outcomes of the behavior and their perceived likelihood.
Intention to perform behavior depends on subjective norm (the belief that
significant others will or will not approve) and perceived behavioral control (PBC;
perceived degree to which situational constraints and available resources
facilitate or prevent performance of the behavior).
Self-regulation Goal setting, plan Changes in travel Feedforward, None
theories formation, travel choice options, social informational
influence feedback
Specifies the implementation of intentions (as opposed to attitude theories)
Setting of goals is outcome of deliberation process (Trip chain attributes lead to
goal setting, goal is influenced by social influences)
Minimal cost of change make less costly changes, if these are insufficient
(negative feedback), more costly changes are chosen
Habit-formation Travel choice, travel Repeated travel Hedonic Implicit
theories behaviour choice or behaviour feedback
Neither choice nor self-regulation theories address the issue of learning
Implicit learning is important for travel habits habits
- prevent overload on information processing;
- are strengthened by positive and weakened by negative hedonic feedback
- are adaptive attain set goals
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