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Schoolorganisatie samenvatting
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Samenvatting van 58 pagina's voor het vak Schoolorganisatie aan de UvA
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Door: zinabashrafel-akabawy • 7 jaar geleden
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SchoolorganisatieTentamen 60%
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Wat is een schoolorganisatie?
Schoolleider? Een groep van docenten? Of zou je eerder focussen op de
leerlingenpopulatie?
Schoolorganisaties worden vaak beschreven in sociale termen: het gaat
om motivatie, percepties, belangen en relaties.
Maat wat met artefacten? Zou je verwijzen naar de rol van handboeken,
schoolarchitectuur of onderwijstechnologie?
Anderen zouden zeggen dat schoolorganisaties een zekere mate van
stabiliteit nodig hebben om te functioneren. Terwijl andere erkennen dat
scholen flexibiliteit nodig hebben en continu moeten veranderen.
Zou je focussen op de interne organisatie van de school? Wat met de
omgeving waarin scholen ingebed zijn?
,Invalshoek module schoolorganisatie
Om complexiteit van schoolorganisaties te vatten, vertrekken we vanuit
drie dualiteiten:
Agency versus structuur
o Agency: de mogelijkheid van individuele actoren om een effect te
hebben op de sociale wereld; “organisaties bestaan uit mensen die
dingen doen, inventief en creatief als zij zijn”
“Goede schoolleider voorwaarde voor goed onderwijs”
“Leraren niet klaar voor passend onderwijs”
“Leraren niet goed opgeleid voor leerlingen met rugzakje”
o Structuur: de invloed van structurele en culturele factoren op actie;
“mensen alleen zijn niet voldoende om een organisatie te vormen,
er zijn ook structuren nodig, zoals beleid, wetten, regels,
organisatievormen, financiële middelen, gebouwen, etc. die mee
vormgeven aan de school= harde kant”
“Mentoruren afschaffen is ‘terug naar af’”
“Grotere klassen als gevolg bezuinigingen op basisscholen”
o Aandacht voor de interactie tussen zowel actorschap als structuren
→ Balans!
Verandering versus stabiliteit
o Verandering: “Organisaties kunnen blijven voortbestaan wanneer ze
veranderen en inspelen op de voortdurend evoluerende
maatschappij”
Positieve associaties: groei, bewegen, vooruitgang en
flexibiliteit.
Kenmerk van succesvolle schoolorganisaties.
Is een constante, scholen worden verwacht continu te
veranderen: datagebruik.
o Stabiliteit: “Zonder een zekere stabiliteit door de herhaling van
activiteiten is er eigenlijk geen sprake van een organisatie:
Negatieve connotatie
Leerkrachten of scholen die niet willen veranderen =
ouderwets, conservatief of koppig vasthoudend aan hun eigen
overtuigingen.
Een bepaalde garantie van stabiliteit is een voorwaarde om
verandering en verbetering mogelijk te maken.
o Een organisatie kan niet stabiel blijven zonder zaken te veranderen.
o Een organisatie kan niet veranderen zonder zaken stabiel te houden.
o Leiderschap versus management:
Leadership is a process of influence leading to the
achievement of desired purposes. It involves inspiring and
supporting others toward the achievement of a vision for the
school which is based on clear personal and professional
values. Management is the implementation of school policies
and the efficient and effective maintenance of the school’s
current activities. Both leadership and management are
required if schools are to be successful.
Micro versus macro
o Micro = actoren en processen in de school
o Meso = schoolorganisatie, begrijpen door te kijken wat er op micro
en macro gebeurt
,o Macro = schoolomgeving
,Invalshoek module schoolorganisatie
Hoe spelen de dualiteiten een rol in de 6 thema’s die aan bod komen in
de hoorcolleges?
Thema 1 – Lokale actoren en hun betekenisgeving
Thema 2 – De school als organisatie: organisatiecultuur en de lerende organisatie
Thema 3 – De school als organisatie: Samenwerking, collegialiteit en
micropolitiek
Thema 4 – De school en haar omgeving: Neo-institutionele theorie
Thema 5 – De materiële dimensie van schoolorganisaties
Thema 6 – De rol van schoolleiderschap
Organisatiekundige stromingen
Organisatiekundige theorie = “Een geheel van gerelateerde concepten,
assumpties en generalisaties die het gedrag in organisaties beschrijven en
verklaren”
Organisatiekundige stromingen:
o Klassieke benadering: rationele processen Rational
Welke formele structuren zijn er?
Organisaties zijn bedrijven, school is een fabriek, het gaat om
de output.
o Gedragsbenadering: interne en sociale dynamieken
Natural
Welke informele structuren zijn er?
Wat is de rol van agency?
Minder controle over de output dan in een fabriek.
o Systeembenadering: bredere omgeving Open
Systems
Wat is de rol van cultuur?
Wat is de rol van context?
School is interactie met de omgeving.
Hedendaagse theorieën
,Three periods of organizational theory
1. Classical organizational theory
2. Behaviorist theory
3. Systems theory
Classical organizational thought was characterized by a concern for specialization
and division of labor, where work was coordinated from the top-down through
formal structures of communication and a well-defined chain of command. →
factory model
Industrial view of school: This model equated schools to factories, where raw
material (students) were processed into finished products (productive citizens).
Classical organizational theorists viewed workers as part of the “machinery” or
“technology” of the organization. Human needs, responses, and goals were not
considered separately from the aims and objectives of the organization. The
social sciences period changed the focus of organizational theory to the
consideration of human dynamics and the impact of psychological and social
factors on the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization. The human
relations approach proposed that people work harder when treated well. A second
theme was the behavioural science approach, which focused on the behavior of
individuals within the formal organization structure, and combined principles of
classical organizational thought with principles of psychology, sociology, political
science, and economics.
Systems theory postulates that organizations are dynamic systems involving
constant interactions among the various formal and informal systems within the
organization as well as exchanges (feedback and input) between the organization
and systems outside the organization.
Closed systems do not consider the relationship of the organization to factors in
its external environment, whereas open systems do consider the relationship of
the organization to factors in its external environment.
Fundamental constructs that define schools zie
dikgedrukt in Chance H2
The organizational typologies offered by Parsons and Blau and Scott provide a
framework for understanding the functions and purposes of schools within the
larger, cultural context. Parsons proposed that schools’ primary function is to
preserve and transmit a society’s culture, and Blau and Scott characterized
schools as serving the public good. The identification schools’ primary purpose is
essential to understanding how organizational structure supports or inhibits the
attainment of fundamental goals. In that vein, Etzioni’s conceptualization of
compliance theory, based on the power structure of the organization, suggests
that schools are normative organizations. This means that a school’s primary goal
is to preserve and reinforce culture. Thus, schools are organizations best suited to
the use of normative power, which employs rewards and sanctions related to
cultural norms such as honors, praise, and commendations. Such power tends to
result in a positive commitment to the organization, which is characterized by a
high degree of cooperation between school administrators and teachers.
Weber’s theory of bureaucracy is fundamental to understanding the formal
functions of an organization as well as discerning the weaknesses inherent in
bureaucracies. Six basic characteristic of bureaucracy were presented along with
their strengths and weaknesses. These are (a) division of labor and specialization
(expertise v.s. isolation), (b) rules and regulations, (c) technical competence and
career orientation (knowledge v.s. experience), (d) impersonal orientation
,(rational v.s. social), (e) hierarchy of authority (top-down v.s. bottom-up), and (f)
separation of ownership from administration.
The organizational structure of school was examined in looking at ongoing
dilemmas related to core values that are often in conflict with one another. The
core values that are modelled by teachers, administrators, parents, students, and
other stakeholders from the basis of the school culture. It is perhaps the greatest
challenge of leadership to guide a school or district toward a shared
organizational vision that pulls together the various stakeholders through the
recognition of common values and beliefs. This is accomplished through the
actions and behaviors of leaders that mirror the espoused mission and vision of
the school. When a school’s organizational structure, operating policies and
procedures, scheduling, and other coordinating mechanisms support
organizational beliefs, the leader had succeeded in finding the appropriate
response to the various dilemmas of organizational structure discussed in chapter
2.
Conceptualizing the change process zie
dikgedrukt in Chance H10
Theories of organizational change explain how organizations adopt and
implement innovations, and these theories describe processes for effective
problem solving and improvement efforts. This chapter characterized
organizational change theories as explaining change through either rational,
linear model, or nonlinear, systemic approaches. Rational, linear theories, termed
“second-wave theories,” are grounded in the assumptions of an industrial era,
whereas nonlinear, systemic approaches, designates as “third-wave theories,”
consider change as a process involving interaction among numerous variables
and systems.
Rational, linear approaches to organizational change include diffusion and
organizational development models. Diffusion approaches have dominated
change efforts in schools, and many legislative and other external change forces
prescribe or use a diffusion approach. Diffusion models approach change as a
rational act based on implementing programs or innovations that have been
proved effective in pilot projects and research. Organizational development
approaches change contextually and emphasizes the establishment of systemic
procedures for problem solving within the organizational system.
Total quality management also stresses process but further prescribes specific
organizational systems and belief systems that drive change. A primary concept
of TQM is the idea of kaizen, or continuous improvement, which sets TQM apart
from organizational development and diffusion models. Continuous improvement
defines change as something different than a single innovation or a distinct
solution to a particular problem. Total quality management is predicated on the
belief that quality is the result of small, incremental improvements over time. →
Stabiliteit is nodig om te kunnen veranderen!
Applied to organizations, theories such as chaos theory and evolutionary theory,
perceive change as the product of interactions among various systems. Such
theories encourage educational leaders to view change in a broad perspective
and to orchestrate change through “systems thinking.”
A common theme among all theories of organizational change is that change is a
process that must involve the people who will be affected by the change. Change
cannot be imposed. For innovations to be implemented within a system, people
in the organization must me actively engaged in problem solving, self-study, and
communication. Organizational change is inextricably tied to the beliefs, values,
and norms that define the organizational culture. Thus, to be institutionalized,
,school leaders must ensure that changes fit within the belief structure and
philosophical orientation of the school.
Thema 1: Lokale actoren en betekenisgeving
Onderwijsvernieuwing = proces dat verloopt over tijd
Adoptie: beslissing om van start te gaan met vernieuwing
Implementatie: daadwerkelijk invoeren van vernieuwing
Institutionalisering: integreren van vernieuwing in dagelijks schoolleven
(wanneer verandering niet langer als veranderding maar als normaal
beschouwd wordt)
“Action is based on how people notice or select information from the
environment, make meaning of that information, and then act on those
interpretations, developing culture, social structures and routines over time.”
Sense-making benadering: Hoe geven lokale actoren betekenis aan
vernieuwingsoproepen en hoe beïnvloedt deze betekenisgeving implementatie?
Policy (= beleid) implementation and cognition
Spillane, 2002
Policy ideas in the abstract, are subject to an infinite variety of contingencies,
and they contain worlds of possible practical applications. What is in them
depends on what is in us, and vice-versa.
What a policy means for implementing agents is constituted in the interaction of
their existing cognitive structures (including knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes),
their situation, and the policy signals. How the implementing agents understand
the policy’s message(s) about local behavior is defined in the interaction of these
three dimensions.
The term “cognitive framework” is used in a broad sense that takes into account
basic information processing as well as the complexities and influences involved
in the processing of information about abstract ideas, the influence of motivation
and affect, and the ways that social context and social interaction affect sense-
making (= begripsvorming). This framework is developed in three stages:
Individual cognition: explore the local implementing agent as an individual
sense-maker.
o How do individuals notice and interpret stimuli?
Implementing agents fail to notice, intentionally ignore, or
selectively attend to policies that are inconsistent with their
own (and/or their agency’s) interests and agendas. Policies
that fit their agendas are more likely to be implemented, and
those that do not are more likely to be either opposed or
modified so that they do fit.
Individuals must use their prior knowledge and experience to
notice, make sense of, interpret, and react to incoming
stimuli.
o How does prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences influences
construction of new understandings?
The fundamental nature of cognition is that new information
is always interpreted in light of what is already understood.
An individual’s prior knowledge and experience, including
tacitly held expectations and beliefs about how the world
works, serve as a lens influencing what the individual notices
in the environment and how the stimuli that are noticed are
processed, encoded, organized, and subsequently interpreted.
, Schemas are knowledge structures that link together related
concepts used to make sense of the world and to make
predictions.
Mental models = mental representation of dynamic processes
Assimilation = encoding stimuli into existing knowledge
frames
Accommodation = restructuring of existing knowledge
o How do the implementer’s beliefs, values, and emotions influence
the sense-making process?
The influence of motivation and affect on cognitive processing
is called “hot cognition” or “motivated reasoning”.
Concrete and familiar examples from one’s own experiences
carry more weight in judgement and decision making than
does abstract information.
Strong motivation can affect the way reasoning is carried out,
leading people to pay more attention to information
consistent with the desired outcome or to discount
inconsistent information.
Accessing emotional associations can affect the judgement
people make. One may persevere in behaviors that have been
rewarding in the past or shy away from ideas perceived to be
similar to negative experiences. A related factor is the strong
motivation to maintain a positive self-image.
Situated cognition: situation or context is critical in understanding the
implementing agent’s sense-making.
o How do multiple dimensions of a situation influence the
implementing agent’s sense-making from and about policy?
At macro level, individuals’ mental frameworks or schema for
apprehending new knowledge depend on their “thought
communities” or “worldviews”. People typically belong to
multiple thought communities by virtue of national and ethnic
identity, religious affiliation, social class membership,
professional identity, and political leanings.
At micro level, the immediate environment contributes to
defining the ways in which people make sense of new
experiences and situations. Social norms and organizational
structures are important contexts for implementing agents’
work and for their efforts to make sense of policy.
Social interactions: As members of a community interact over
time on problems of shared concern, they negotiate meanings
about the nature of their work and in some instances shared
understandings about what they need from outsiders to do
their work well. These shared understandings become a filter
for ideas about revising extant practice.
Organizational context: Human interaction patterns in schools
and other delivery agencies are in part a function of
organizational structure. Organizational arrangement can
hamper or enable interactions among implementing agents
about policy and practice.
Informal communities: The ways in which teachers and police
personnel come to understand public policy and their ways of
interpreting it are influenced by nonstate or nonsystem
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