Samenvatting
Social Research Methodology Full Summary
- Instelling
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (VU)
Full summary of the course Social Research Methodology (nov/dec 2020).
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EXAMSocial Research Methodology
Content:
1. Social Research
a. Theory
b. Ontology and Epistemology
c. The Process
i. Research Questions
2. Research Designs
a. How many cases?
i. Case Study
ii. Comparative
b. The Role of Time
i. Cross-sectional
ii. Longitudinal
c. Manipulation?
i. Experimental
ii. Non-experimental
d. Quality Criteria
3. Quantitative Research
a. Quantitative Research
b. Sampling
c. Survey Research
i. Formulating Questions
d. Structured Observation and Reactivity
e. Content Analysis
f. Using existing data
i. “Big Data”
4. Qualitative Research
a. Qualitative Research
b. Quality Criteria
c. Methods
i. Sampling
ii. Interviews
iii. Ethnography
iv. Focus Groups
5. Ethical and Political Aspects of Research
1
,Social Research
Determining differences of social scientific research:
Systematic: Deliberate planning; following a process
Empirical: The data ultimately decides
Transparent: Verifiable and controllable: Clarifications and reflections about the establishment of
the knowledge. A need for flexibility and perseverance!
Theory
Two approaches:
A. Deductive
Theory Observations and findings
Derive concrete hypothesis from general theory
B. Inductive
Observations and findings Theory
Outcome of research creates theory
“The induction problem”: We cannot learn from confirmatory observations.
X. Iterative strategy
Back and forth between data and theory
Iteration = repetition
Refining or retesting theory
Used in Grounded theory
Starts with observations
Ontology and Epistemology
Ontology: Reality
Constructionism
Social phenomena and meanings are accomplished by social actors
They are produced through social interaction and are constantly reproduced
Social objects and categories are socially constructed
Objectivism
Social phenomena and meanings have an independent existence from social actors
Epistemology
Knowledge
How to obtain knowledge?
Rationalism; thinking: Knowledge through logical reasoning.
Empiricism; senses: Knowledge through observation and experiences.
Interpretivism
Understanding: “Verstehen” (empathic understanding)
Respects differences between people and objects of natural sciences
Requires social scientists to grasp subjective meanings and worldviews
Gain access to interpretations and worldviews
Idiographic: Descriptions of unique cases and processes
Closely related to:
o Hermeneutics: the study of interpretation
o Phenomenology: the study of people’s meaning-making
Researchers present their version of that reality; double interpretation.
Relativistic: All moral values are equally valid.
Reflexive: Awareness of biases and values and the influence on your research. Honesty about how
it may have affected it.
Positivism
Explaining: “Erklären”
2
, Application of natural sciences methods to study of social reality
Searching for nomothetic explanations: universal laws and causal generalizations
Empiricist: Only observed phenomena, through senses, is warranted as knowledge
Deductive in its purpose of theory as to generate testable hypotheses
Inductive in its arrival at knowledge through gathering facts and falsifying
Value free and objective science based on facts
Clear distinction between scientific statements and normative statements. The former is true
for a scientist; the latter cannot be confirmed by the senses.
Karl Popper vs. Thomas Kuhn
Popper
o Objectivist
o Falsification solves the induction problem
Kuhn
o Constructivist
o Scientific revolution is the transition from one paradigm to another
o Paradigms are incommensurable
Social science is pre-paradigmatic. Scholars still disagree about fundamental assumptions. There is no
single view on epistemology or methodology.
The Process
1. Research question
2. Literature review
3. Concepts and theory
4. Selection of research units (Research Design)
5. Data Collection
6. Data Analysis
7. Writing up
The Empirical Research Cycle: Evaluation and writing leads to new research questions. Theory is in
the center: it always plays a role.
Research Questions
Explicit statement of what you want to find out.
Always formulate research questions. Clear focus.
Questions, hypothesis, statement
Determines the process and influences all phases
o Which literature
o The Design
o Analysis
o Conclusions
A process of narrowing down
o Research area Aspect of area Research Questions Select questions
o The questions should be related to one another, if not you risk lack of focus.
Key Terms; Social Research:
Deduction
Induction
The induction Problem
Iterative
The Empirical Research Cycle
General types of questions:
Exploratory
3
, o Explore phenomenon
o Little is known on beforehand
Descriptive
o Describe the amount or perception of something
o Clear definitions
o I.e.: “How many students?
Explanatory
o To what extent can y be explained by x?
o “Why”?
Evaluative
o “How effective”?
o Evaluation of an influence or intervention
Criteria:
Clear
Researchable
Connected to established theory and research
Linked to each other
Original contribution
Neither too broad nor too narrow
Justified
o How they emerged
o Importance
o Demonstrated link with literature
Important notions:
Qualitative researchers ds not always generate theory; and its often already in the background.
Quantitative researchers also sometimes collect data first.
Values and personal opinions:
1. Value free and objective.
2. Relativist and reflexive.
3. Conscious partiality: Explain, understand, change!
Research Designs
How many cases?
Case Study
Detailed and intensive analysis of one case
Multiple interviewees; multiple data sources
What exactly are the cases?
Subcategory: Biographical
Critical issue: Transferability (External validity)
Credibility is more important: How believable is the generated theory?
Detailed, believable description of the case
A case study is not a sample of one; the findings aim to generalize to theory; not to a population.
The quality of the theoretical inference are crucial.
Comparative Study
Extension of case study: Same methods to compare one or two cases
Extension of Survey Research: Two or more cross-national studies
o Often involves cross-national/cross-cultural comparisons
Advantage: Test of general theory and generalizability; “reduce the risk of failing to appreciate
cultural specific findings”
Disadvantage: Less attention for particularities in each case. Are they comparable?
The Role of Time
Cross-Sectional
“Snapshot” at one single point in time
4
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