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Summary Social Science Research - Anol Bhattacherjee
Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices by Anol Bhattacherjee
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Summary – Social Science Research byAnol Bhattacherjee
Chapter 1 – Science and Scientific Research
Science
Something is considered “scientific research” when it contributes to a body of science and when it
follows the scientific method.
Science refers to a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any area of inquiry that is acquired
using “the scientific method” Science can be grouped into two broad categories. Natural science, the
science of naturally occurring objects or phenomena, such as light. The natural sciences can be further
classified into physical sciences, earth sciences, life sciences, and others. Social science is the science
of people or collections of people such as groups, firms, societies, or economies, and their individual
or collective behaviours. Social sciences can be classified into disciplines such as psychology, sociology
and economics. The natural sciences are very precise, accurate, deterministic and independent of the
person making the scientific observation. In contrast, the social sciences tend to be less accurate,
deterministic or unambiguous. There is a high degree of measurement error in the social sciences and
there is considerable uncertainty and little agreement on social science policy decisions.
Sciences can also be classified based on their purpose. Basic sciences, also called pure
sciences, are those that explain the most basic objects and forces, relationships between them, and
laws governing them. Applied sciences, also called practical sciences, are sciences that apply scientific
knowledge from basic sciences in a physical environment. Both basic and applied sciences are required
for human development. However, applied sciences cannot stand on their own right, but instead rely
on basic sciences for its progress.
Scientific Knowledge
The purpose of science is to create scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge refers to a generalized
body of laws and theories to explain a phenomenon or behaviour of interest that are acquired using
the scientific method. Laws are observed patterns of phenomena or behaviours, while theories are
systematic explanations of the underlying phenomenon or behaviour. The goal of scientific research
is to discover laws and postulate theories that can explain natural or social phenomena, or in other
words, build scientific knowledge. It is important to understand that this knowledge may be imperfect
or even quite far from the truth. Sometimes, there may not be a single universal truth, but rather an
equilibrium of “multiple truths.” We must understand that the theories, upon which scientific
knowledge is based, are only explanations of a particular phenomenon, as suggested by a scientist. As
such, there may be good or pore explanations which result in good or poor theories.
Scientific Research
Scientific research operates at two levels: a theoretical level and an empirical level. The theoretical
level is concerned with developing abstract concepts about a natural or social phenomenon and
relationships between those concepts, while the empirical level is concerned with testing the
theoretical concepts and relationships to see how well they reflect our observations of reality, with
the goal of ultimately building better theories. Both theory and observations are essential components
of scientific research.
, Depending on the researcher’s training and interest, scientific inquiry may take one of two
possible forms: inductive or deductive. In inductive research (theory building), the goal of a researcher
is to infer theoretical concepts and patterns from observed data. In deductive research (theory
testing), the goal of the researcher is to test concepts and patterns known from theory using new
empirical data. Both forms are critical for the advancement of science.
Theory building and theory testing are particularly difficult in the social sciences, given the
imprecise nature of the theoretical concepts, inadequate tools to measure them, and the presence of
many unaccounted factors that can also influence the phenomenon of interest.
Conducting scientific research requires two sets of skills- theoretical and methodological –
needed to operate in the theoretical and empirical levels respectively.
Scientific Method
Scientific method refers to a standardized set of techniques for building scientific knowledge, such as
how to make valid observations, how to interpret results, and how to generalize those results. The
scientific method must satisfy four characteristics:
Replicability: Others should be able to independently replicate or repeat a scientific
study and obtain similar, if not identical, results.
Precision: Theoretical concepts, which are often hard to measure, must be defined
with such precision that others can use those definitions to measure those concepts
and test that theory.
Falsifiability: A theory must be stated in a way that it can be disproven. Theories that
cannot be tested or falsified are not scientific theories and any such knowledge is not
scientific knowledge. A theory that is specified in imprecise terms or whose concepts
are not accurately measurable cannot be tested, and is therefore not scientific.
Parsimony: When there are multiple explanations of a phenomenon, scientists must
always accept the simplest or logically most economical explanation. This concept is
called parsimony or “Occam’s razor.” Parsimony prevents scientists from pursuing
overly complex or outlandish theories with endless number of concepts and
relationships that may explain a little bit of everything but nothing in particular.
Types of scientific research
Exploratory research, often conducted in new areas of inquiry
Research goals:
(1) to scope out the magnitude or extent of a particular phenomenon, problem,
or behaviour
(2) to generate some initial ideas about that phenomenon, or
(3) to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study regarding that
phenomenon
Descriptive research, is directed at making careful observations and detailed
documentation of a phenomenon of interest. These observations must be based on
the scientific method, and therefore, are more reliable than casual observations by
untrained people.
Explanatory research seeks explanations of observed phenomena, problems, or
behaviours. While descriptive research examines the what, where, and when of a
phenomenon, explanatory research seeks answers to why and how types of
questions. It attempts to “connect the dots” in research, by identifying causal factors
and outcomes of the target phenomenon.
, History of Scientific Thought
In the earliest days of human inquiry, knowledge was usually recognized in terms of theological
precepts based on faith. This was challenges by Greek philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and
Socrates during the 3rd century BC, who suggested that the fundamental nature of being and the world
can be understood more accurately through a process of systematic logical reasoning called
rationalism. Rationalism views reason as the source of knowledge or justification, and suggests that
the criterion of truth is not sensory but rather intellectual and deductive, often derived from a set of
principles or axioms.
British philosopher Francis Bacon suggested in the 16th century that knowledge can only be
derived from observations in the real world. Based on this premise, Bacon emphasized knowledge
acquisitions as an empirical activity (rather than a reasoning activity), and developed empiricism as
an influential branch of philosophy. Bacon’s work led to the popularization of inductive methods of
scientific inquiry, the development of the “scientific method” (originally called the “Baconian
method”).
In the 18th century, German philosopher Immanuel Kant sought to resolve the dispute
between empiricism and rationalism in his book Critique of Pure Reason, by arguing that experience
is purely subjective and processing them using pure reason without first delving into the subjective
nature of experiences will lead to theoretical illusions. Kant’s ideas led to the development of German
idealism.
At about the same time, French philosopher August Comte attempted to blend rationalism
and empiricism in a new doctrine called positivism. He suggested that theory and observations have
circular dependence on each other. While theories may be created via reasoning, they are only
authentic if they can be verified through observations. The emphasis on verification started the
separation of modern science from philosophy and metaphysics and further development of the
“scientific method”.
In the early 20th century, strong accounts of positivism were rejected by interpretive
sociologists belonging to the German idealism school of thought. Positivism was typically equated with
quantitative research methods, while antipositivism employed qualitative methods. Antipositivists
emphasized that social actions must be studied through interpretive means based upon and
understanding the meaning and purpose that individuals attach to their personal actions.
Karl Marx critiqued capitalistic societies as being social inequitable and inefficient, and
recommended resolving this inequity through class conflict and proletarian revolutions. Marxism
inspired social revolutions in multiple countries, but generally failed to accomplish the social equality
that it aspired. Critical research (also called critical theory) propounded by Max Horkheimer and
Jurgen Habermas in the 20th century, retains similar ideas of critiquing and resolving social inequality,
and adds that people can and should consciously act to change their social and economic
circumstances, although their ability to do so is constrained by various forms of social, cultural and
political domination. Critical research attempts to uncover and critique the restrictive and alienating
conditions of the status quo by analyzing the oppositions, conflicts and contradictions in
contemporary society, and seeks to eliminate the causes of alienation and domination (i.e.,
emancipate the oppressed class).
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