Essay

Unit 8A - Musculoskeletal Disorders

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Unit 8 - Physiology of Human Body Systems

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PEARSON (PEARSON)

I did get a distinction however PLEASE read through your assignment brief as all schools ask for different requirements, so somethings will be different (my advise would be to use this as a guide :) ). This includes the description of ALL the joints, 3 different disorders, comparisons and evaluatio...

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pivpt joint
hinge joint
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musculoskeletal disorders
unit 8a
btec scince
applied science
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arthritis
hypermobility
hip dysplasia
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unit 8a musculoskeletal disorders

Study Level
BTEC
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PEARSON (PEARSON)
Subject
Applied Science 2016 NQF
Course
Unit 8 - Physiology of Human Body Systems

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Unit 8A - Musculoskeletal Disorders

Aim
You are employed by a large sports and fitness company as a trainee Health Care Assistant within their
Occupational Health Department (OHD). Your employers are concerned that a significant number of working
days are lost due to employee absence through musculoskeletal disorders. They hope that by liaising with
other Health Care professionals, the OHD will be able to create support programmes that offer employees
education and guidance regarding the structure and function of the musculoskeletal system, the treatments
available for disorders of the system and the effective clinical management of common musculoskeletal
disorders. The company’s management team hopes that this initiative will reduce absences by expediting
employees return to work in the shortest possible time. Your role is to carry out research in order to produce
information that will be used to educate the employees.

Introduction
The musculoskeletal system is a human body system that provides our body with movement that provides the
body with, shape, and support[1] and consists of 206 bones. This system is divided into two different parts, the
muscular system and the skeletal system. The muscular system includes all types of muscles in the body,
Skeletal muscles, in general, are the ones that perform on the body joints to make a movement. Apart from the
muscles, this system contains the tendons which adhere the muscles to the bones. The skeletal system whose
main element is the bone. Bones cohere with each other and create the joints, providing our bodies with a
committed, yet mobile, skeleton[2]. The rectitude and function of the bones and joints are supported by the
accessory structures of the skeletal system; articular cartilage, ligaments, joints, and bursae. The
musculoskeletal system's main function is to allow for the body to be stable (so the skeleton can stay upright
and provides a framework for muscles and tissue attachment) as well as mobility (the skeleton allows
movement of the body as a whole and its individual parts.

The bones from the joints act like levers, allowing for muscles to pull on them to produce movement. These
bones provide surfaces for attachment of muscles), protection (the bones of skeletons protect internal organs
and reduce the risk of injury on impact. For Eg Cranium, the skull, protects the brain, the ribs offer protection
for the heart and lungs, the vertebrae cushions the spinal cord and pelvis guards the sensitive reproductive
organs)[3], blood cell production (particular bones in the human skeleton contain bone marrow that actively
produces red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. A couple of examples would be the pelvis, sternum,
humerus and femur), however, it has many other important roles in other homeostatic function such as storing
minerals like calcium and hematopoiesis, while the muscular system stores most of the body’s carbohydrates
in a glycogen form[4]. The general types of joints are fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints and synovial joints, they
are classified according to how much motion they allow. The fibrous joints are found between the bones that
are close in contact and do not perform much at all, this is the joint found in the skull. The Cartilaginous joints
connect two bones together with cartilage in between each other. As cartilage is a little flexible, it allows for a
small amount of movement, but not very much. The joints that connect to the ribs to the centre of the human’s
chest (sternum) are cartilaginous. This allies for the chest to expand and contract as you breathe[5]. The final
major joints within the body, like the knee, neck, wrist and hip are called the synovial joints. This includes two
or more bones that are covered with cartilage at each end and are surrounded by a capsule that secretes a
fluid that lubricates the joint which is the synovial joint.

The Six Major Joints
A joint is a place where two or more bones meet, this can also be called an articulation. Synovial joints are
further classified into six different categories on the basis of the shape and structure of the joint, allow us the
free movement to perform skills and techniques during physical work or activity and in the body, the six joints
are known are called the pivot, hinge, saddle, gliding, condyloid and ball & socket joints.

The Pivot Joint - The Neck
The Pivot joints, also known as rotary joints, or trochoid joints have features and physical structure, consisting
of one bone fitting into a ring formed by the other bone. In some joints, the cylinder-like structure rotates inside

,the ring[6]. Invertebrate anatomy, a freely movable joint. This particular joint allows rotational movement, as the
rounded bone moves around its own axis[7]. In the body, there are only three pivot points, which are located in
the neck, wrist and elbow. A general example of a pivot joint is the joint of the first and second vertebrae of the
neck allowing the head to move back and forth directly under the skull, which allows for the turning of the head
from side to side. The main muscles involved are the anterolateral neck muscles, within them have
sternocleidomastoid muscles ( this muscle stretches from the base of the neck towards the back of the ear)
that flex and rotate the head. E.g lifting and turning the head when lying down, the scalenes (located at the
sides of the neck) muscles that flex and rotate the neck. When moving the head backwards and forwards is
when the splenius capitis and splenius cervicis (located at the back of the neck) are engaged. The Pivot joint
also provides for the twisting movement of the bones of the forearm, which is the radius and ulna, against the
upper arm, a movement used, for example, unscrewing the lid of a jar.

The neck is made up of four different compartments; the vertebral compartment contains the cervical vertebrae
with cartilaginous discs that are found between each body. This alignment of the vertebrae defines the shape
of the human neck. Because the vertebrae are bound to the spinal canal, the cervical portion of the spinal cord
is also found within the neck. The second muscle is the Visceral compartment which inhibit the trachea, larynx,
pharynx, thyroid and parathyroid glands, and then the third being the Vascular compartment, that is paired and
contains of the tow carotid sheaths found on each side of the trachea. These sheaths contain the vagus nerve,
common carotid artery and the internal jugular vein. Other than this, the neck contains cervical lymph nodes
which surround the blood vessels.

The muscles from the neck are connected to the sternum, hyoid bone, clavicles and the skull and are bonded
at the two major neck triangles, the anterior and posterior. Anterior triangle is located at the anterior border of
the sternocleidomastoid muscle, inferior edge of the mandible and the midline of the neck. It inhabits the
stylohyoid, digastric, mylohyoid, geniohyoid, omohyoid, sternohyoid, thyrohyoid and sternothyroid muscles.
They are grouped as the suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles depending whether or not they are located
superiorly or inferiorly to the hyoid bone. The suprahyoid muscles raise the hyoid bone, while the infrahyoid
muscles) lowers it. Acting synchronously, both groups help with speech and swallowing. Where the Posterior
triangle is bordered by the posterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, anterior border of the trapezius
muscle and the superior edge of the middle third of the clavicle. This triangle contains the sternocleidomastoid,
trapezius, splenius capitis, levator scapulae, omohyoid, anterior, middle and posterior scalene muscles.

The neck supports the weight of the head and protects the nerves that hold the sensory and motor information
all the way from the brain down to the body. The neck is extremely flexible and allows for the head to turn and
flex in all directions. There are three different ligaments that help stabilize the neck and the spine. The Anterior
longitudinal ligament is the ligament that starts at the base of the skull and goes down the front of the vertebral
bodies and intervertebral discs. When the neck falls backwards, the anterior longitudinal ligament is the key
ligament to resist and become stretched during that movement. Posterior longitudinal ligament goes down the
back of the vertebral bodies and intervertebral discs. When the neck is flexed forward, this ligament stretches
and resists that motion. It is also located inside the spinal canal in front of the spinal cord. And finally the
Ligamentum flavum is the ligamentum flavum that are short, paired ligaments that connect the vertebral arches
of adjacent vertebrae, helping to cover the spinal cord from behind, each ligamentum flavum connects a
lamina to the lamina below. Over time, the ligamenta flava thickens and in some cases contributes to
compressing a spinal nerve root or the spinal cord.

Fig 1 - pivot joint Fig 1,2,3 - neck muscle and ligaments

, The Hinge Joint - The Elbow
The Hinge joint is another one of the common classifications of the synovial joint including the ankle, elbow
and knee joints, also an example of a uniaxial joint meaning that they can only move in a single direction.
These joints are formed when two or more bones meet and move along an axis to bend. The biceps allows for
flexion and twisting motions and the tricep extends the arm. One of the simpler hinge joints in the body is
found in between the phalanges of the fingers and toes[8]. In these particular hinge joints, bones are able to flex
which decreases the angle between them, like creating a fist or curling your toes, and when extending to
increase their angle to 180 degrees when the hand or foot is flat[9]. Because of the small amount of bodyweight
that is exerted on these joints, hinge joints are made up of very simple synovial joint material with a tiny bit of
ligament for an added boost. Each one of these bones is covered with a thin layer of hyaline cartilage (which
are only present in joints) to reduce friction in the joint and for shock absorption.

They are also surrounded by a capsule of tough fibrous tissue lined with the synovial membrane[10]. The
anconeus muscle (small muscle in the elbow) aids in extending the forearm whereas the brachialis muscle
assists to flex the elbow to the body. The human elbow is one of the more complex hinge joints in the body that
forms between the humerus of the upper arm and the ulna, radius of the forearm. Compared to the knuckles or
fingers, the elbows can withstand a lot more weight making them a very important element of the skeletal
system structure. The ulna and radius guarantee ligaments will assist to hold the ulna and radius to the
humerus and reinforce the joint[11]. Like the elbow, the ankle joint creates a hinge joint between the tibia and
fibula at the lower leg and the talus bone in the foot. The ligament accessory holds bones in place while also
reinforcing the joint to take the stresses of holding the body’s weight when running, standing, walking etc.

The elbow, like most joints, has ligaments on both sides. They are triangular bands that merge together with
the joint capsule, they are positioned so that they lie across the transverse joint axis meaning they are always
tense and inflict strict limitations on abduction, adduction and axial rotation at the elbow. Something that is
important to note is that the ulnar collateral ligament has its apex on the medial epicondyle, Its anterior band
reaches from the outside of the medial epicondyle to the medial edge of the coronoid process, while the
posterior band reaches from inside of the medial epicondyle to the medial side of the olecranon. These two
bands are separated by thinner intermediate parts and their distal attachments are joined by a transverse band
below which the synovial membrane protrudes during joint movements. The anterior band is linked with the
tendon of the superficial flexor muscles of the forearm, also the birth of flexor digitorum superficialis. The ulnar
nerve overlaps the intermediate part as it goes into the forearm. The radial collateral ligament is connected to
the lateral epicondyle below the common extensor tendon. Less distinct than the ulnar collateral ligament, this
ligament blends with the annular ligament of the radius and its margins are attached near the radial notch of
the ulna.

There are 3 main muscle flexors in the human elbow, the branchialis, the brachioradialis and the biceps
brachii. The brachialis only acts as an elbow flexor and is one of the few muscles in the body that have one
function. It is found on the anterior side of the humerus and is planted into the tuberosity of the ulna. The
second muscle is the brachioradialis which acts primarily as an elbow flexor as well however also turns during
intense pronation and pronates during extreme supination. It originates at the lateral supracondylar ridge
distally on the humerus and is inserted distally on the radius at the styloid process. And finally the biceps
brachii is the main elbow flexor in the arm, but as a biarticular muscle and plays a vital secondary role as a
stabiliser at the shoulder. It was found on the shoulder blade with two tendons; that of the long head on the
supraglenoid tubercle just above the shoulder joint and that of the short head on the coracoid process at the
top of the scapula. Its main insertion is at the radial tuberosity on the radius.

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