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Summary Literature History of Psychology 2021/2022
- Instelling
- Universiteit Leiden (UL)
In this document, all eight chapters needed for the exam on History of Psychology at the University Leiden, have been summarized.
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History of psychology - SummaryChapter 1. Mechanicism
1.1 Introduction: Why history of psychology
The course starts around 1600 and ends in 1950. In 1950, cognitive psychology replaced behaviourism
as the dominant view in psychology. Still, we will study views from before 1950, like conditioning.
These topics still influence present-day psychology. Views on what kind of science psychology is and
what methods it can use, are not settled. Buikhuisen wanted to study the biological basis of criminal
behaviour, which led to protests as some believed the real causes are societal factors. Due to
harassment, he resigned in 1988 and moved to Spain. The topics that psychology studies relate to
core questions on what it is to be human and have changed through history. The aims and methods of
psychology are still being debated and can change in the future.
1.2 When does the history of psychology start
Wilhelm Wundt started a psychological laboratory at the university of Leipzig in 1879. This was the
start of psychology as an academic science. Wundt-1 (scientific) saw psychology as an experimental
science and was restricted to mostly perception. Wundt-2 (philosophical) studies topics that involve
the conscious and creative mind. According to Wundt-2, these forms of behaviour are too complex to
study with experimental methods, because creativity causes us to behave differently during
replications.
Before Wundt, psychology was part of other courses. Physiology focused mainly on the experiment
approach, found in the work of Fechner and Weber. Philosophy focused on the ‘higher’ levels of
psychological processing in the form of interpretation. It seems nowadays that the experimental
approach has the upper hand, but it faces problems due to the replication crisis (only one in three
psychological experimental studies can be replicated).
Plato and Socrates had written about psychology before him, but Aristotle (381-322 BC) wrote the
Anima (Peri Psyches → On living and knowing), the first book written only on psychology. Psychology
comes from psyches and logos, generally ‘the learning or study of psyche’. For Aristotle psyche is the
basis of biology and psychology. This is unusual, as both had many conflicts in history. Aristotle
believed that all things have an essence, a place and purpose. Things move because they strive to
reach their goal.
1.3 The rise of mechanicism around 1600
During the Middle Ages (500 - 1500), a class system emerged. Greek and Roman knowledge was lost
and education was confined to the church. To read, write and to educate other people on their
teachings, the church opened schools, cathedrals, which developed into the first European
universities (1200). Later Roman and Greek knowledge and philosophy were introduced and
incorporated in the teachings of the church. Aristotle’s theocentric worldview fit with their teachings.
The planets and stars move because of their essence and move eternally. The Primum Mobile (or
unmoved mover or First Mover) was the last circle of heavens and moved, which the other planets
tried to copy. Peasants were born where they were supposed to be. Aristotle only answered why
questions, the church filled in their own why.
This view changed due to multiple scientists. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) placed the sun and not
the earth in the centre of the universe. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) defended the heliocentric view of
Copernicus and developed the basis of mechanics in physics. Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) argued that
other worlds could exist beside the earth. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) showed that the planet Mars
moves around the sun and in an elliptic (not circular) orbit. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) introduced the
method of induction. Their aim also changed to understanding how, instead of why.
1.4 Mechanicism in science
First planets were seen as entities with moods. Mechanicism views the universe as material, made up
of matter, moving under the influence of a force. They wanted to know how it works. Ancient
philosophers Leucippus, Democritus and Lucretius argued that matter consists of atoms, the smallest
parts something can be divided into. Mechanicists looked at what atoms matter consisted of and
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,History of psychology - Summary
classified the atoms based on their shape, size and position. These primary qualities could be
quantified, they could be measured and be given a number as description. This means they are
objective. The size, shape and motion of a material derive from the atoms it’s made of. Secondary
qualities cannot be measured, like taste and colour. These contextual influences changed perception.
The aim to know ‘how’ has led to the method of analysis. The object is separated in the parts it
consists of, for example atoms, and the interaction between these parts is being looked at. For
mechanicists, only primary qualities were of interest for a study, as it does not depend on the
observer.
The aim of mechanicism is to explain all behaviour with components at the most basic level, the
atoms. Reductionists try to explain phenomena in one field by providing a mechanism on a more
fundamental level. This is found in many fields of science. Higher-level phenomena result from and
thus can be explained by lower-level phenomena. Greedy reductionism is when people only blame
one cause for a phenomena with multiple causes.
1.5 Mechanicism in society
As cities became richer at the ending of the Middle Ages, trading and markets began to increase. As a
result money began to make its way into the streets. This led to a quantification of goods, which are
determined by supply and demand. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) wrote ‘knowledge is might’, if you
know how the world works, you can use that knowledge to your advantage.
1.6 The search for certain knowledge
Once we have achieved knowledge, we want to know whether it is correct. Plato argued that
knowledge is innate. We already know everything when we are born, but experiences in our life are
needed to remind us of this. This is rationalism, the knowledge derives from our ability to reason.
Aristotle agreed, but said the role of experience is acquiring knowledge. This is empiricism. Bacon was
an empiricist, but stated that observations could only result in knowledge if they were done with the
method of induction, to do observations and execute experiments in a systematic way and present
them in an organized fashion. This way one can notice a pattern.
1.7 Three main themes in psychology: history and now
Nature vs. Nurture is the question whether intelligence and human abilities are hereditary or derive
from experience and education. An example of this is the Buikhuisen case. The book ‘The bell curve’
suggests that a hereditary factor influences intelligence. Wundt-2 would have said that intelligence is
a phenomenon too complex to be captured by one single number like IQ. James Fallon discovered
that some people are predipositioned to become a psychopath, but can turn out ‘normal’ with a good
upbringing. Some gene(pairs) can be turned on or off as a consequence of the environment.
According to Wundt, lower-level phenomena, like thinking and creativity, arise out of a different kind
of existence. As these phenomena do not consist of matter, they cannot be studied with the same
methods we use to study physiology. This leads to the mind-body problem, how do they interact?
Descartes saw the same problem and made a sharp distinction between matter (body) and thinking
(cognition). AI will start raising questions about thinking again, as it is made of matter, but can ‘think’.
Monism asserts that there is one kind of being in the universe. This belief is shared by most scientists.
Realists see matter as the only substance that exists. Idealists believe only thought exists (like matrix).
Dualism sees mind and matter as two distinct entities.
Initially, emotions were seen as unimportant in psychology. But the importance of emotion in
cognitive psychology has increased. Damasia shows how emotions are important to make a decision.
Phineas Gage lost most of his left ventromedial prefrontal cortex and could no longer take the
emotional implication of his decision into account. This shows we need emotions to make rational
decisions.
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, History of psychology - Summary
Chapter 2. Descartes and Hobbes
2.2 Rationalism: To acquire unquestionable knowledge
Rationalism is the view on how we can acquire knowledge, especially knowledge that is
unquestionable. Descartes did not want to know ‘why’, but ‘how’. He thought knowledge should be of
practical use.
Descartes wrote in Meditations on First Philosophy how we can acquire unquestionable knowledge.
He starts with the doubt experiment, no knowledge we have can be trusted (sceptic). We could be
living in a ‘VR-world’, like the matrix. Humans cannot acquire any knowledge that they can be certain
of. The only thing you can be certain of, is the fact that you exist, as you can think about the fact that
you exist. This means he does not doubt everything, so he is no sceptic. ‘Cogito ergo sum’ = ‘I think,
therefore I am’. Ratio, thinking, is the basis for knowledge. This shows Descartes favours rationalism
over scepticism and empiricism. He states once a mathematical theorem is proved, there is absolute
certainty, which observation using the senses would not achieve.
Euclid demonstrated that once a theorem was proven, it could be used to prove other theorems.
Spinoza aimed to prove one statement after another, using previously proven statements. This is
known as deduction. A syllogism starts with two premises and ends with a conclusion derived from
these premises. (All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. Socrates is a mortal.) The first premises
are axioms and postulates that cannot be proven. This makes the claim very weak. The premise
Descartes starts with is ‘ I think, therefore I am’. Any statement that is clear and distinct to the mind is
true. These are innate, as they derive from the mind itself.
2.3 Mechanism: The nature of the universe (matter)
Aristotle said that all objects strive to reach their natural place. Galileo stated bodies are dead objects
and only change their state under the influence of a force. Descartes says mechanism is the
explanation for everything that is made of matter. He sees the human body as a machine, operating
by mechanistic principles, like a hydraulic system. The heart pumps blood through tubes which makes
the body move. Nerves are animal spirits, which become compressed and flow up to the brain when
you experience a reflex. The exception is the human soul.
2.4 Dualism: The special nature of the human soul (thinking)
According to Descartes, all forms of matter occupy space. Spatial extension is the defining
characteristic of matter, which can be analysed. If you cannot analyse something, you cannot study it
scientifically. He said all behaviour has a cause, it's deterministic. The mind cannot be divided, is not
material and since we have free will, is not deterministic. The soul, mind has the defining
characteristic thinking. Therefore, a science of the mind is impossible. The creativity and free will of
the mind also ensures an experiment cannot be repeated, thus psychology is not a science.
The behaviour of matter and mind are fundamentally different, thus there is no substance underlying
both. The mind-body problem describes the problem of interaction between mind and matter.
Descartes says they make contact in the pineal gland, this is the notion of interactionism. He picked
the only part in the brain that is double and the major brain structures seemed to end in the pineal
gland.
2.5 The influence of Descartes on psychology
Only cognition was seen as psychology. A statement had to be clear and distinct, very subjective.
Psychology had to invent methods that were reliable and could guarantee replication. He viewed
mostly healthy adults, created the mind-body problem and emphasized the basis of human cognition.
2.6 Introduction: Hobbes (1588-1679)
Hobbes lived during the civil war in Britain and fled to Paris for 11 years. He wrote several books, the
most important Leviathan, containing chapters on sense, imagination, speech, memory, reason and
voluntary motion. The ruler or sovereign should arise out of society itself. His role should be to use its
power to protect the people and enforce their obedience to the social contract, to avoid civil war.
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