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Qualitative Methods MAN-BCU2033 summary + exam questions
Summary of whole SwissMooc course, including summary of the videos, key terms and practice questions
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Voorbeeld 6 van de 100 pagina's
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Voorbeeld van de inhoud
Qualitative MethodsInhoudsopgave
Key Terms ........................................................................................................................................................ 3
1: Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods ............................................................................................ 7
Why is QLM becoming more important? ........................................................................................................... 7
Validity: .......................................................................................................................................................... 8
Reliability ....................................................................................................................................................... 8
Practice quiz ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
Real quiz ........................................................................................................................................................... 10
2. Theoretical Background for Qualitative Research Methods ........................................................................ 12
Philosophy of Science ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Positivism (Auguste Comte)......................................................................................................................... 12
Phenomenology (Edward Husserl) .............................................................................................................. 12
Interpretative Approach ................................................................................................................................... 13
Historical Development ............................................................................................................................... 13
Philosophical Assumptions and Interpretative Frameworks or Theories.......................................................... 14
Three Theoretical Approaches .......................................................................................................................... 18
1: Symbolic Interactionism .......................................................................................................................... 18
2: Ethnomethodology .................................................................................................................................. 18
3: Post-structuralism ................................................................................................................................... 18
Qualitative research approaches...................................................................................................................... 19
3: Research Design for Qualitative Research .................................................................................................. 28
3.1 What is a qualitative Research Design? ..................................................................................................... 28
Presenting and justifying your QLMR .......................................................................................................... 28
How to make your research design stand out ............................................................................................. 28
Ethical considerations.................................................................................................................................. 28
Informed Consent ........................................................................................................................................ 29
Quality criteria for qualitative research ...................................................................................................... 29
3.2 Qualitative methods Research Design ........................................................................................................ 32
Choosing the right method .......................................................................................................................... 32
3.3 Mixed Methods Research Design ............................................................................................................... 34
3.4 Case Study Research Design ....................................................................................................................... 35
4: Collecting Qualitative Data ......................................................................................................................... 39
4.2 Interviewing ................................................................................................................................................ 39
4.2 Interview assignment ................................................................................................................................. 42
4.3 Observations ............................................................................................................................................... 42
4.5 Other data sources ..................................................................................................................................... 46
5: Analysing Qualitative Data ......................................................................................................................... 49
5.1 Introduction to computer assisted qualitative data analysis ..................................................................... 49
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,5.2 Grounded Theory analysis .......................................................................................................................... 50
5.3 (Critical) Discourse Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 55
5.4 Phenomenological Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 72
§5.5 Ethnographic Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 79
§5.6 Visual Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 85
..................................... 92
.................................. 92
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, 6: Reporting Results of
Qualitative Research ...................................................................................................................................... 93
§6.1 Reporting Results in Qualitative Research ................................................................................................ 94
Key Terms
Interpretive method A method in which qualitative data are not taken at face value, but
which uses techniques for understanding what might have been meant
while taking the specific context and subjective intentions into account.
Representation Data that are not necessarily objective facts, but are at best
representations or expressions of factual situations
Naturalistic approach An approach that studies things in their natural settings and context
Natural setting The specific historical and geographical context/situation which people
try to interpret and make sense of
Context Same as above
Subjectivity The way individual personal judgment is shaped by personal opinions
and feelings, as well as meanings allocated to the situation by the
person being confronted
Subjectivity of Researcher The way individual researcher’s interpretations are shaped by personal
positionings, ideologies, interpretative/theoretical frameworks,
opinions and feelings
Subjectivity of Participants The way participants subjectively interpret their situation and how their
researched actions are led by these interpretations
Meaning The subjective significance allocated by a person to a situation, or the
sense this situation subjectively imparts to that person
Introduction Making an inference or drawing general conclusions based on empirical
observations in a particular situation
Deduction Deriving a hypotheses by means of logical reasoning based on present
general theoretical insights
Exploratory Methodological approach attempting to discover the hitherto unknown,
and thus to contribute to theory building
Confirmatory Methodological approach attempting to find confirmation of
theoretically derived hypotheses
Explanation Explaining phenomena by referring to the necessary and sufficient
causal relationships between causes and effects
Understanding Understanding phenomena by referring to the subjective reasons
people have for their actions or the subjective sense people make of
their actions
Research design Important decisions the researcher needs to make about the way the
researcher wants to answer the research question, such as:
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, • General setting, like the temporal and spatial setting
• Which general methods would help to find answers
• How to collect data (including sampling methods)
• What methods to use to analyse data
• Ethical issues
• How to report results
Research method The technical procedures governing how to apply a specific method
Validity The way the analysis results represent what they are supposed to
represent in the current situation, and how far they can be generally
applied to other situations
Reliability The way in which the results of the analysis can be reproduced, and are
robust for disturbing influences
Credibility The confidence in the ‘truth’ of the findings
Transferability The way findings have applicability in other contexts
Dependability The way the findings are consistent and could be repeated
Confirmability The degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a study
are shaped by the respondents and not by researcher bias, motivation,
or interest.
Societal problem Science wants to contribute to a better world, and therefore wants to
help solve certain problems. So every research project starts with
identifying a practical problem we need to cope with, in society and to
which solution science aims to contribute.
Societal relevance The way research can contribute to the solution to a societal problem.
Note that science usually can not solve to the problem as a whole, but
at best can only modestly help to make a small step towards a solution.
Knowledge problem Research produces new knowledge and insights. So the contribution of
science to society is always focused on something we do not know
already and which we need to know to solve a certain practical
problem. It is therefore important to explore what we already know
about the topic of our research and to identify the knowledge gap we
are confronted with when we try to solve a practical problem.
Scientific relevance The scientific relevance of our research is the contribution we can make
to filling the knowledge gaps we are confronted with. This can be
empirical knowledge (empirical facts), but also conceptual/theoretical
knowledge about relevant aspects and their (causal) relationships.
Feasibility As engaged researchers, we are always ambitious and instantly would
like to improve the world. The time frame and budgetary and other
limitations of our research project, however, often do not allow this.
We, therefore, need to be very attentive and modest about what is
really feasible within the framework of our research project.
Research objective The research objective is the feasible goal we believe can be realised
within the framework of our research.
Research question The knowledge problem we are addressing in our research can often be
translated into a number of concrete research questions, which we seek
to find an answer to in our research.
Theoretical/conceptual The research questions we formulated, often involve a number of
framework concepts/variables and propositions about the relationships between
these concepts/variables. They might be inspired by existing theories
and proposed adaptations or enhancements or alternative formulations
of these existing theoretical insights. This is usually the basis of a
theoretical/conceptual framework exemplifying your first thoughts
about how to conceptualise and theorise your research questions.
Unit of analysis In science, we often cannot produce knowledge which is universally
true, and we at best can only say something about a certain situation or
a certain case under specific circumstances. The unit or entity we wish
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, to say something about at the end of our study is what we call our unit
of analysis. The unit of analysis will be determined by your research
question.
Unit of observation Within the unit of analysis, we often choose a or several unit(s) of
observation, which we actually empirically observe and collect data
about, to be able to infer conclusions about the (broader) unit of
analysis. The unit of observation is determined largely by the method of
data collection that you use to answer your research question. In some
exceptional cases, the unit of observation might be the same as the unit
of analysis, but in most cases, it is not.
Research sample The method for the selection of the units of observation is your
sampling method. A research sample is a group of people, objects,
organizations, or situations taken from a larger population or unit of
analysis. The sample should be representative of the population to
ensure that we can generalise the findings from the research sample to
the population as a whole.
Method of data collection Because of the situational or contextual openness of qualitative
research methods, the method for collecting qualitative data is often
seen as crucial. In our research design, we need to underpin our specific
method of data collection. However, in contrast to some common
research practices in qualitative research, this is certainly not sufficient!
We also need to underpin our method of analysis of qualitative data.
Method of data analysis In qualitative research it is sometimes forgotten, that one can analyse
qualitative data in many different ways, as we also learn in this course.
In our research design, we, therefore, need to be explicit about what
method of analysis we are using and need to underpin, why this
method is suitable for finding the answers to our research questions.
Time schedule Collecting qualitative data and analysing qualitative data is not an easy
task, and is certainly much more than a common conversation with
participants and everyday interpretations. Scientific research in the field
of qualitative research is a tedious and time-consuming job, which
demand thorough and realistic time planning. A time schedule is,
therefore, an important element in your research design.
Research ethics Research should be directed to helping to solve societal problems, and
therefore is an ethically responsible job. In doing so, it should also avoid
causing harm, distress, anxiety, pain or any other negative feelings to
participants and participating organisations. This does not imply that in
the conclusions of your research you cannot criticize the behaviour of
participants or participating organisations, but it needs to be
constructive.
Honesty Honesty means, among other things, reporting the research process
accurately, taking alternative opinions and counterarguments seriously,
being open about margins of uncertainty, refraining from making
unfounded claims, refraining from fabricating or falsifying data or
sources and refraining from presenting results more favorably or
unfavorably than they actually are.
Responsibility Responsibility means, among other things, acknowledging the fact that
a researcher does not operate in isolation and hence taking into
consideration – within reasonable limits – the legitimate interests of
human and animal test subjects, as well as those of commissioning
parties, funding bodies and the environment. Responsibility also means
conducting research that is scientifically and/or societally relevant.
Scrupulousness Scrupulousness means, among other things, using methods that are
scientific or scholarly and exercising the best possible care in designing,
undertaking, reporting and disseminating research.
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, Independence Independence means, among other things, not allowing the choice of
method, the assessment of data, the weight attributed to alternative
statements or the assessment of others’ research or research proposals
to be guided by non-scientific or non-scholarly considerations (e.g.,
those of a commercial or political nature). In this sense, independence
also includes impartiality. Independence is required at all times in the
design, conduct and reporting of research, although not necessarily in
the choice of research topic and research question.
Transparency Transparency means, among other things, ensuring that it is clear to
others what data the research was based on, how the data were
obtained, what and how results were achieved and what role was
played by external stakeholders. If parts of the research or data are not
to be made public, the researcher must provide a good account of why
this is not possible. It must be evident, at least to peers, how the
research was conducted and what the various phases of the research
process were. At the very least, this means that the line of reasoning
must be clear and that the steps in the research process must be
verifiable.
Ethics creep The attempt to govern and regulate social scientific research in the
name of ethics, although substantial and situational ethical judgement
might diverge from these top-down ethical (governance) claims.
Informed consent The procedure for informing the participant about the objectives of
your research and about the way you will process and publish
the information one gains from the participants, and for getting
permission for it from the participant, beforehand or in hindsight.
Community informed consent In qualitative research, we do not only deal with individual participants,
but also with participating communities or organisations. So it might be
important, to also get joint informed consent from that community or
group of people.
Individual informed consent As far as possible it is important to get informed consent from each
individual participant.
Credibility Completeness and accuracy of the data.
Analisability Completeness and accuracy of analysis and interpretation.
Transparency Completeness and full disclosure of all aspects of research.
Usefulness Ability to do something of value with the outcomes.
Explanatory sequential mixed A mixed-methods design in which one used qualitative research as
methods design method following quantitative research to exemplify and explain the
results found in the quantitative research.
Exploratory sequential mixed A mixed-methods design in which qualitative research is first used to
methods design explore the conceptual field before one does a more targeted
quantitative analysis of these concepts or dimensions.
Convergend mixed methods A mixed-method design, in which parallelly conducted qualitative and
design quantitative research provide enhancing insights into a specific topic.
Population The total population of cases one wants to draw conclusions on.
Case A specific case out of the total population of cases one wants to
empirically investigate to base and infer the conclusions of the research
on.
Observation The degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a study
are shaped by the respondents and not by researcher bias, motivation,
or interest.
Variables The attributes or dimensions or variables of a specific observational unit
which are assessed in your empirical research.
Cross case study A study in which several cases, often a larger number of cases, are
investigated, and compared with each other.
Case study A study in which one or a very small number of cases are investigated.
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