Chaucer’s Language - Simon Horobin
§1 Why study Chaucer’s language?
All living languages are subject to change. Linguistic change may happen in various different
ways for a variety of different reasons, affecting the pronunciation, grammar or vocabulary of a
language. These changes are reflections of that fact that languages are in a continual process of
flux, adapting to reflect changes taking place in the society within they are used.
Over the past 500 years the English language has undergone numerous changes that have
radically altered its structure. Linguistic change means that to read Chaucer today we need a
good understanding of his language and how it differs from our own.
The most obvious way in which Chaucer’s language may appear similar to our own is in the
survival of many of his words into PDE (Present Day English). But here we must be careful, as a
word may have kept the same appearance but have changed its meaning. (false friends)
A sound understanding of the full range of meanings associated with Chaucer’s vocabulary is
particularly important when dealing with certain key terms. For instance, the adjective gentil and
the related gentilesse occur frequently throughout Chaucer’s works. For him it signified rank or
status, indicating that someone belonged to a noble family.
Another aspect of a word’s meaning and use that we need to be aware of when reading Chaucer
is its connotation. Connotation is often hard to define; it is an aspect of a word that cannot be
determined simply by looking in a glossary or a dictionary.
Besides vocabulary, there are also differences between the grammar of ME (Middle English) and
PDE. It is important to be aware of this. For example, Chaucer sometimes switches between
present- and past tense. One reason for the shift from the present to the past is to indicate a
move from continuous to a completed action. Another possible explanation for the switching of
tenses concerns metre. Metre is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse.
Whatever the reason for such switching is, it is clear that we cannot judge such passages by
modern standards.
Just as we cannot apply the grammatical rules of standard English when reading Chaucer, so we
must also put aside any preconceptions we have concerning the importance of correctness and
consistency when using language. This is because Chaucer wrote before the English language
had become standardised; there was much greater variation in the use of language, which in turn
allowed Chaucer considerable flexibility.
§2 Writing in English
Chaucer wrote in English. While this might seem really obvious, in Chaucer’s time writing in
English was not that common.
During the fourteenth century, aristocratic court culture was predominantly French, and much of
the literature that was read by this group was in French. So, Chaucer could have chosen to write
in French, he was certainly was fluent. Chaucer might also have chosen to write in Latin, an
authoritative language used not only by the great classical writers, but by universities and
churches as well. But Chaucer chose to write in English.
While the early ME period was dominated by francophone culture, the early thirteenth century
began to witness a shift in England towards the use of English rather than French. This was partly
because of King Henry V’s anti-French campaigns, and partly because of the changing social
conditions in the country.
Chaucer himself also did a lot for the popularity of the English language. By writing a range of
characters, in a range of voices, as well as writing scientific, moral, philosophical and penitential
prose tracts, Chaucer showed that the English language was capable of a range of functions not
witnessed since before the Norman Conquest. Chaucer demonstrated how the English language
could be used for all types of writing, particularly for secular literature.
, §3 What was Middle English?
The Middle English period is dated to be between 1100 and 1500, although these two dates are
more scholarly convenience than a linguistic fact. It is important to emphasise at the outset that
the changes distinguish ME from its ancestor, Old English, did not occur overnight, but were the
culmination of a series of gradual changes which took place over a period of time.
The year 1100 is often used as starting point, because of the significance of the Battle of
Hastings. After this, the French took over and thus the language as well. English continued to be
used, but it became a largely spoken language, rather than a written one.
Middle English dialects
As a result of this shift in the status of English, there was no longer a standard variety of the
language that could be used and understood by all, and speakers and writers of English used
their own local dialects. In the Old English period, the dialect of the southwest functioned as a
standard language. But as there was no standard language in this period, a Middle English writer
used his native dialect as his medium for composition.
There were four main dialect areas in the Middle English period: southern, West Midland, East
Midland, and northern, although of course these broad categories compromised considerable
internal variation. The basis of the London dialect is a southern variety, and it is the dialect
Chaucer uses the majority of the time.
Standardisation
Middle English comprised a number of different dialects, and there is no evidence that one dialect
considered to be socially superior to the other. The spoken dialect that was selected as the basis
of the standard accent in this period was that of London, on account of its social and economic
importance. This was also the accent used by Chaucer, although it is important to stress that this
was a natural decision for a Londoner and not an indication of its greater social prominence.
Characteristics of Middle English
The most obvious way in which French influenced the later history of English is the large influx of
French vocabulary into English during the ME period. This borrowing of words can be divided
into two main stages.
During the first stage, borrowed words are of Norman French origin and often relate to areas of
the most importance to the Norman conquerors. These include words related to law and
government. Another area which saw the importing of large numbers of French words was the
Church. In the second stage, we see the introduction of words from the central French dialect
that are not restricted to any specific field.
It is not only the French which enter the English language during the Middle English period. A
number of words of Old Norse origin make their first appearance here. This might strike us as
rather odd, but it is notable that words borrowed from ON are generally common, everyday terms
which are not marked as belonging to a particular domain or register. These include words like
ugly, egg, window.
While vocabulary might be the most obvious area in which French influences on English may be
seen, the impact was felt at all linguistic levels. Perhaps the most evident is the shift in English
from a largely synthetic structure to a predominantly analytical one. A synthetic language is one
where relationships between words are indicated by special endings, called ‘inflexions’, where an
analytical language relies more on word order. In OE, inflexions were added to nouns to indicate
number and case. By the end of the Old English period, these inflexions were becoming less
distinct in the spoken language and began to be reduced to the sound ‘schwa’.
In the ME period, this process of change continued so that all such inflexions were lost, apart
from the -s plural ending on nouns, the genitive singular -es ending and -e ending on adjectives.
These changes meant that inflexions were no longer available to indicate the relationship between
words, and this led to the establishment of a more fixed word order. Where the order of subject,
verb and object was comparatively flexible in OE, ME is more consistent with the word order that
we are familiar with today.
§1 Why study Chaucer’s language?
All living languages are subject to change. Linguistic change may happen in various different
ways for a variety of different reasons, affecting the pronunciation, grammar or vocabulary of a
language. These changes are reflections of that fact that languages are in a continual process of
flux, adapting to reflect changes taking place in the society within they are used.
Over the past 500 years the English language has undergone numerous changes that have
radically altered its structure. Linguistic change means that to read Chaucer today we need a
good understanding of his language and how it differs from our own.
The most obvious way in which Chaucer’s language may appear similar to our own is in the
survival of many of his words into PDE (Present Day English). But here we must be careful, as a
word may have kept the same appearance but have changed its meaning. (false friends)
A sound understanding of the full range of meanings associated with Chaucer’s vocabulary is
particularly important when dealing with certain key terms. For instance, the adjective gentil and
the related gentilesse occur frequently throughout Chaucer’s works. For him it signified rank or
status, indicating that someone belonged to a noble family.
Another aspect of a word’s meaning and use that we need to be aware of when reading Chaucer
is its connotation. Connotation is often hard to define; it is an aspect of a word that cannot be
determined simply by looking in a glossary or a dictionary.
Besides vocabulary, there are also differences between the grammar of ME (Middle English) and
PDE. It is important to be aware of this. For example, Chaucer sometimes switches between
present- and past tense. One reason for the shift from the present to the past is to indicate a
move from continuous to a completed action. Another possible explanation for the switching of
tenses concerns metre. Metre is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse.
Whatever the reason for such switching is, it is clear that we cannot judge such passages by
modern standards.
Just as we cannot apply the grammatical rules of standard English when reading Chaucer, so we
must also put aside any preconceptions we have concerning the importance of correctness and
consistency when using language. This is because Chaucer wrote before the English language
had become standardised; there was much greater variation in the use of language, which in turn
allowed Chaucer considerable flexibility.
§2 Writing in English
Chaucer wrote in English. While this might seem really obvious, in Chaucer’s time writing in
English was not that common.
During the fourteenth century, aristocratic court culture was predominantly French, and much of
the literature that was read by this group was in French. So, Chaucer could have chosen to write
in French, he was certainly was fluent. Chaucer might also have chosen to write in Latin, an
authoritative language used not only by the great classical writers, but by universities and
churches as well. But Chaucer chose to write in English.
While the early ME period was dominated by francophone culture, the early thirteenth century
began to witness a shift in England towards the use of English rather than French. This was partly
because of King Henry V’s anti-French campaigns, and partly because of the changing social
conditions in the country.
Chaucer himself also did a lot for the popularity of the English language. By writing a range of
characters, in a range of voices, as well as writing scientific, moral, philosophical and penitential
prose tracts, Chaucer showed that the English language was capable of a range of functions not
witnessed since before the Norman Conquest. Chaucer demonstrated how the English language
could be used for all types of writing, particularly for secular literature.
, §3 What was Middle English?
The Middle English period is dated to be between 1100 and 1500, although these two dates are
more scholarly convenience than a linguistic fact. It is important to emphasise at the outset that
the changes distinguish ME from its ancestor, Old English, did not occur overnight, but were the
culmination of a series of gradual changes which took place over a period of time.
The year 1100 is often used as starting point, because of the significance of the Battle of
Hastings. After this, the French took over and thus the language as well. English continued to be
used, but it became a largely spoken language, rather than a written one.
Middle English dialects
As a result of this shift in the status of English, there was no longer a standard variety of the
language that could be used and understood by all, and speakers and writers of English used
their own local dialects. In the Old English period, the dialect of the southwest functioned as a
standard language. But as there was no standard language in this period, a Middle English writer
used his native dialect as his medium for composition.
There were four main dialect areas in the Middle English period: southern, West Midland, East
Midland, and northern, although of course these broad categories compromised considerable
internal variation. The basis of the London dialect is a southern variety, and it is the dialect
Chaucer uses the majority of the time.
Standardisation
Middle English comprised a number of different dialects, and there is no evidence that one dialect
considered to be socially superior to the other. The spoken dialect that was selected as the basis
of the standard accent in this period was that of London, on account of its social and economic
importance. This was also the accent used by Chaucer, although it is important to stress that this
was a natural decision for a Londoner and not an indication of its greater social prominence.
Characteristics of Middle English
The most obvious way in which French influenced the later history of English is the large influx of
French vocabulary into English during the ME period. This borrowing of words can be divided
into two main stages.
During the first stage, borrowed words are of Norman French origin and often relate to areas of
the most importance to the Norman conquerors. These include words related to law and
government. Another area which saw the importing of large numbers of French words was the
Church. In the second stage, we see the introduction of words from the central French dialect
that are not restricted to any specific field.
It is not only the French which enter the English language during the Middle English period. A
number of words of Old Norse origin make their first appearance here. This might strike us as
rather odd, but it is notable that words borrowed from ON are generally common, everyday terms
which are not marked as belonging to a particular domain or register. These include words like
ugly, egg, window.
While vocabulary might be the most obvious area in which French influences on English may be
seen, the impact was felt at all linguistic levels. Perhaps the most evident is the shift in English
from a largely synthetic structure to a predominantly analytical one. A synthetic language is one
where relationships between words are indicated by special endings, called ‘inflexions’, where an
analytical language relies more on word order. In OE, inflexions were added to nouns to indicate
number and case. By the end of the Old English period, these inflexions were becoming less
distinct in the spoken language and began to be reduced to the sound ‘schwa’.
In the ME period, this process of change continued so that all such inflexions were lost, apart
from the -s plural ending on nouns, the genitive singular -es ending and -e ending on adjectives.
These changes meant that inflexions were no longer available to indicate the relationship between
words, and this led to the establishment of a more fixed word order. Where the order of subject,
verb and object was comparatively flexible in OE, ME is more consistent with the word order that
we are familiar with today.
