Racisme in de Westerse Wereld, Samenvatting tentamen per week
WEEK 1: Introduction to the history of Racism
Readings:
Fredrickson, Racism: a short history
Culturalism; Culturalism is the idea that individuals are determined by their culture, that these
cultures form closed, organic wholes, and that the individual is unable to leave his or her own
culture but rather can only realise him or herself within it. Culturalism also maintains that cultures
have a claim to special rights and protections – even if at the same time they violate individual
rights. The use of allegedly deep-seated cultural differences as a justification for hostility and
discrimination against newcomers from the Third World in several European countries has led to
allegations of a new “cultural racism.”
Everyday racism; Is a term coined by Dutch sociologist Philomena Essed to express the recurrent,
systematic, and familiar practices within society which act to the disadvantage of ethnic minorities.
Rather than the exceptional incidents of racism—such as the racist attack—everyday racism
describes the normal practices (hence ‘everyday’) which permeate society and disadvantage ethnic
minorities. Such practices infiltrate organizational life and become seen as normal by organizational
members. The concept is therefore very similar to the idea of institutional racism, though Essed's
term seeks to encapsulate the way that discrimination is perpetuated through the whole of society
and combines both individual action and institutional structures.
Limpieza de sangre; literally "cleanliness of blood" and meaning "blood purity", was a system of
discrimination used in early modern Spain and Portugal. The label referred to those who were
considered "Old Christians", without recent ancestry from people who had not been Christian such
as Muslim or Jewish ancestors
Curse of Ham; The curse of Ham (actually placed upon Ham's son Canaan) occurs in the Book of
Genesis, imposed by the patriarch Noah. It occurs in the context of Noah's drunkenness and is
provoked by a shameful act perpetrated by Noah's son Ham, who "saw the nakedness of his father".
The exact nature of Ham's transgression and the reason Noah cursed Canaan when Ham had sinned
have been debated for over 2,000 years. The story's original purpose may have been to justify the
subjection of the Canaanite people to the Israelites, but in later centuries, the narrative was
interpreted by some Christians, Muslims and Jews as an explanation for black skin, as well as a
justification for slavery. Similarly, the Latter Day Saint movement used the curse of Ham to prevent
the ordination of black men to its priesthood.
Nevertheless, most Christians, Muslims, Jews and Mormons now disagree with such interpretations,
because in the biblical text, Ham himself is not cursed, and race or skin color is never mentioned.
polygenesis; the hypothetical origination of a race or species from a number of independent
stocks/sources.
Bartolomé de las Casas; (Sevilla, 24 augustus 1484 – Madrid, 17 juli 1566) heeft ervoor gezorgd dat
de indiaanse slavernij is gestopt, door keizer Karel V over te halen. Hij bleef bij het standpunt of
geloof dat de volken gekerstend moesten worden en wierp zich op tegen het afslachten en
mishandelen van de aangetroffen ‘ongelovigen'. Hij kreeg het onder meer voor elkaar dat, tijdens
het beroemde Dispuut van Valladolid in 1550, de 'Indios Bravos' voortaan als 'mensen' werden
erkend.
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach; Eind 18e eeuw maakte hij een indeling naar menselijke soort:
Kaukasisch (wit), Mongools (geel), Amerikaans (rood), Ethiopisch (zwart) en Maleis (bruin). later
founded on crania research (description of human skulls). Further anatomical study led him to the
conclusion that 'individual Africans differ as much, or even more, from other Africans as from
,Europeans'. Blumenbach argued that physical characteristics like skin color, cranial profile, etc.,
depended on geography, diet, and mannerism. Blumenbach held to the "degenerative hypothesis"
of racial origins. Blumenbach claimed that Adam and Eve were Caucasian inhabitants of Asia (see
Asia hypothesis),[15] and that other races came about by degeneration from environmental factors
such as the sun and poor diet.
Study questions
How does Fredrickson define ‘racism’? Do you see any gaps in his definition?
It is when differences that might otherwise be considered ethnocultural are regarded as innate,
indelible, and unchangeable that a racist attitude or ideology can be said to exist.
My theory or conception of racism, therefore, has two components: difference and power. It
originates from a mind- set that regards “them” as different from “us” in ways that are permanent
and unbridgeable. This sense of difference provides a motive or rationale for using our power advan-
tage to treat the ethnoracial Other in ways that we would regard as cruel or unjust if applied to
members of our own group.
Ook op p 5-6
Augstein, Race: the origins of an idea
When does Augsberg describe the concept of “race” being developed in Europe? Which groups of
people began to define “race”?
The English term ‘race’ is derived from the French. Originally it designated the royal families who
governed France in the middle ages.
Hoorcollege:
- Why a history of racism in the Western world?
- Why does the context of history matter?
What is race? A social and historical construct with no scientific foundation. A group, type of category
of humans. A physical / cultural traits biologically determined and therefore fixed and hereditary.
1. Dominant idea about human origins was that everyone was descended from Adam and Eve
(monogenesis) and physical traits were read as judgements from God.
2. The idea of separate origins (polygenesis) was a minority among Bible scholars and one that was a
response to obvious physical diversity of the human race.
Scientific racism = modern period searches for a universal + science based / justified definitions of
race. Physical appearance, behaviour of individuals and their supposed cultural traits was an
unalterable expression of their biological type. Races had different capacities according to a hierarchy
where some where superior to others.
What is racism? Racist and racism were created as recently as the 1890s and 1900s to designate /
describe those promoting racial theory along with a hierarchy of races. Prejudice towards certain
races coupled with discriminatory action + segregation. Just like the category of race, racism is also
relational, can be context specific, and has changed over time. It has served different interests in
specific contexts and time periods.
Four ‘races’ of man:
The significance of Bernier’s work:
1. Giving physical features foundational status to develop a new system of classification
2. Transition from sacred history to natural history
3. Viewing humanity as part of a finite number of races rather than as members of a (nearly) limitless
number of tribes or groups
, Werkgroep:
Definitie ras en racism: “My theory or conception of racism, therefore, has two components:
difference and power. It originates from a mindset that regards ‘them’ as different from ‘us’ in ways
that are permanent and unbridgeable. This sense of difference provides a motive or rationale for
using our power advantage to treat the ethnoracial, other in ways that we would regards as cruel or
unjust if applied to members of our own group. The possible consequences of this nexus of attitude
and action range from unofficial but pervasive social discrimination at one end of the spectrum to
genocide at the other, with government-sanctioned segregation, colonial, subjugation, exclusion,
forced deportation (or ethnic cleansing), and enslavement among the other variations on the theme.
In all manifestations of racism from the mildest to the most severe, what is being denied is the
possibility that the racializers and the racialized can coexist in the same society, except perhaps on
the basis of domination and subordination. Also rejected is any notion that indivudals can obliterate
ethnoracial difference by changing their identities.”
Other definition, Fredrickson: Racism, therefore, is more than theorizing about human differences or
thinking badly of a group over which one has no control. It either directly sustains or proposes to
establish a racial order, a permanent group hierarchy that is believed to reflect the laws of nature or
the decrees of God. Racism in this sense is neither a given of human social existence, a universal
“consciousness of kind,” nor simply a modern theory that biology determines history and culture.
Other: “It is when differences that might otherwise be considered ethnocultural are regarded as
innate, indelible, and unchangeable that a racist attitude or ideology can be said to exist. It finds its
clearest expression when the kind of ethnic differences that are firmly rooted in language, customs
and kinship are overridden in the name of an imagined collectively based on pigmentation, as in
white supremacy..”
Fredrickson: het is contextgevoelig en de definitie veranderd over de tijd. Racisme is pas echt aan de
hand als je intrinsiek verschilt van elkaar en dus bijvoorbeeld jezelf niet meer kan veranderen.
Rassen is meer een soort sociale poging om de mensen in te delen in groepen. Ras is een historisch
en sociaal construct. Het is iets wat de mensen hebben gecreëerd.
Middeleeuwen en Vroegmoderne periode, denk aan..
- Context
- Ras en racism
- Narratief/verhaal/evolutie
- Verschil met ‘modern’ racism + waarom toch belangrijk?
Concrete fragmenten en voorbeelden
Middeleeuwen: men komt allemaal van Adam en Eva. Het wereldbeeld wordt gedomineerd door
religie. Er is een ongelijke maatschappij met de koning bovenaan. Fredrickson ziet de indeling in de
samenleving vooral vanuit een culturalisme en niet perse een racisme. Iedereen was bijvoorbeeld
een christen of kon dat in ieder geval worden. Er was toen sprake van blood purity; de koning had
blauw bloed en niemand anders had dat.
Vroegmoderne periode: imperiale ondernemingen komen op gang. Er komt een twijfel over de
middeleeuwen. Wat voor verklaringen waren er in deze periode dan wel? 1. Environmentalism: het
hangt af van in welk klimaat je leeft, hoe je er uit ziet.
