Recommendations for the exam:
Hello, I wrote these notes for the biopsychology and neuropsychology course in 2021. I received a 9 on this
exam (screenshot below) by studying these notes. A lot of questions were comparisons between two terms
(Ex: neurotransmitters vs. Neuropeptides, or the difference between myelinated and unmyelinated neurons).
Before studying all details of each term, make sure you understand the big picture (Ex: focus on understanding
what the function of the blood-brain barrier is, before spending your time learning more specific details of what
molecules can cross through active or passive transport). The summary questions at the end of each section in
the book are very relevant and good practice for the exam. 100% recommend to go through those”
Week 1: Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 3
Module 1.1 The cells of the Nervous System 3
Module 1.2 The Nerve Impulse 6
Module 2.1 The Concept of the Synapse 9
Module 2.2: Chemical events at the Synapse 10
Week 2: Chapter 3 16
Module 3.1: Structure of the vertebrate Nervous system 16
Module 3.2: The Cerebral Cortex 19
Module 3.3: Research Methods 22
Week 3: Chapter 4 24
Module 4.1: Genetics and Evolution of Behaviour 24
Module 4.2: Development of the Brain 26
Module 4.3: Plasticity after Brain Damage 31
Week 4: Chapter 5 and 6 34
Module 5.1: Visual Coding 34
Module 5.2: How the Brain Processes Visual Information 35
Module 5.3: Parallel Processing in the Visual Cortex 40
Module 6.1: Audition 41
Module 6.2: The Mechanical Senses 44
Module 6.3: The Chemical Senses 48
Week 5: Chapter 7 51
Module 7.1: The Control of Movement 51
Module 7.1 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 52
Module 7.3: Movement Disorders 55
Week 6: Chapter 12 and Chapter 13 58
Module 12.1: Learning, Memory and Memory Loss 58
Module 12.2: The Hoppocampus and the Striatum 60
Module 12.3: Storing Information in the Nervous System 62
Module 12.4: Intelligence 66
Module 13.1: Lateralization and Language 67
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, Module 13.2: Conscious and Unconscious Processes 70
Module 13.3: Making Decisions and Social Neuroscience 73
Week 7: Chapter 11 76
Module 11.1: What is Emotion? 76
Module 11.2: Attack and Escape Behaviours 78
Module 11.3: Stress and Health 81
Week 8: Chapter 14 83
Module 14.1: Substance Abuse 83
Module 14.2: Mood Disorders 85
Module 14.3: Schizophrenia 89
Module 14.4: Autism Spectrum Disorders 93
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, Week 1: Chapter 1 and Chapter 2
Module 1.1 The cells of the Nervous System
Neurons and Glia cells:
● The nervous system is made up of neurons and glial cells (more on these below)
● Neurons: receive and transmit information from one cell to the next. Essentially, they pass on signals.
The adult brain has 86 billion neurons on average.
● Neurons contain the same internal structures as other animal cells, however neurons have a different
shape than animal cells.
The following are all different types of glial cells. Essentially Glial cells have a lot of support functions for the
functioning of the nervous system, such as increasing conduction through the myelin sheath, hygiene,
protection etc. Glia exist in both the central and the peripheral nervous system.
Astrocytes 1. Shields neurons from chemicals
2. synchronize closely related neurons (important for breathing)
3. dilate blood vessels to bring more nutrients to areas that have high
activity
Tripartite synapse hypothesis:
Astrocytes release chemicals that magnify messages, which can contribute to
learning and memory.
Microglia Are an important part of the immune system - they remove viruses and fungi
from the brain. After brain damage, they remove the weakest synapses.
Oligodendrocytes/ Central nervous system (CNS = brain and spinal cord) - Oligodendrocytes.
Schwann cells Peripheral nervous system (PNS = connects brain and spinal chord to the rest
of the body) - Schwann cells.
Both of them are responsible for myelinating (insulating) axons. (more on
myelination later)
Additionally, they supply nutrients to axons.
Radial cells They uide the migration of neurons and their axons and dendrites during
embryonic development. Once embryonic development is done, they are no
longer needed and differentiate into neurons and some into astrocytes and
oligodendrocytes.
Major discoveries for neuroscience:
Golgi found a way to stain nerve cells, so they could then see a single neuron more clearly. Santiago Ramon
and Cajal - made detailed drawings of the nervous system, and found out that neurons are separate from each
other, and do not merge together.
General parts of animal cells which are also found in neurons:
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, ● Neurons contain the same internal structures (membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes etc) as
other animals' cells, however neurons are shaped differently.
● Membrane - separates inside the cell from the outside environment. Most chemicals cannot cross the
membrane, but protein channels in the membrane permit flow of water, oxygen, sodium, potassium,
calcium, chloride etc.
● Nucleus - all animal cells (except for red blood cells) have a nucleus. Contains the chromosomes
(DNA)
● Mitochondria - performs all metabolic activities, providing energy. Mitochondria have genes separate
from those in the nucleus of a cell, and mitochondria differ from one another genetically. Always hot if
overly active
● Ribosomes - synthesize new protein molecules. Provide building materials for the cell and facilitate
chemical reactions. Some float freely, some are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
○ Endoplasmic reticulum - a network of thin tubes that transport newly synthesized proteins to
other locations.
Structure of a neuron:
● The shape can vary significantly. Smaller neurons don't have axons and may lack well-defined
dendrites. Others have very long axons which stretch from your toe to your spinal cord. The 4 main
structures: dendrites, axons, cell body/soma, presynaptic terminal
● Soma/Cell body: contains the nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria. Often covered with synapses on
its surface
● Dendrites: branching fibres that get narrower near their ends (like a tree). Their surface is lined with
synaptic receptors which receive info from other neurons. The greater the surface area, the more info it
can receive. Dendritic spines (short outgrowths) increase the surface area available for synapses.
Many spines = healthy neuron. long and thin and few spines = mental retardation.
● Axons: thin fibers of constant thickness. Conveys an impulse towards the end of the neuron, where it
is passed on. Axons can be more than a meter in length (Ex: from spinal cord to feet)
○ Myelin sheath: insulating material
○ Nodes of Ranvier: interruptions in axons (more about these later)
○ 1 neuron, has 1 axon and many dendrites.
● Presynaptic terminals (end bulb): The “end” of the neuron, which passes the impulse to the next
neuron. Many chemicals and neurotransmitters are released here, to encourage the next neuron to
fire.
● Interneuron/intrinsic neuron: when dendrites and axons are contained within a single structure.
Between efferent and afferent signals Ex: axon and dendrites all within the thalamus
● Motor neuron:
○ Soma in the spinal cord (note: this was a question on last years exam)
○ Receives excitation through dendrites and conducts impulses towards a muscle.
○ Efferent Neuron: carries info away from a structure. All motor neurons. E-Exits
● Sensory neuron:
○ Specializes to be highly sensitive to a type of stimulation (Ex: light, sound, touch)
○ Cell body is on the axon
○ Afferent Neuron: brings info into a structure. All sensory neurons A-Approach
Note: in the images below, the impulse would travel from the left to the right. Beginning with the dendrites, to
the axons, and presynaptic terminals (axon terminals).
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, The blood-brain barrier:
● Blood vessels are shaped in a way to exclude certain chemicals from entering the brain
● We need a blood-brain barrier because:
○ When a virus invades a cell, the cell extrudes virus particles through the membrane, for the
immune system to handle. The immune system kills the virus and the cells that contain it.
○ The brain would then have to kill the neuron. But the brain generally does not replace
damaged neurons.
● some viruses do cross the blood-brain barrier: Ex: Rabies, syphilis etc. but microglia are more effective
against other viruses that enter the brain. (microglia also do not kill the neuron)
● The blood brain barrier depends on endothelial cells that form the walls of the capillaries. Endothelial
cells in the body are separated by small gaps, but in the brain they are joined so tightly that they block
viruses, bacteria and other harmful chemicals
○ Alzheimer's disease: endothelial cells shrink and harmful chemicals enter the brain.
● However the brain would not function without the exchange of fuels, nutrients and amino other
substances. What can cross:
○ small, uncharged molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide can cross
○ molecules that dissolve in the fats of the membrane (vitamin A and D and drugs) cross freely.
■ How fast a drug takes effect depends on how readily it dissolves in fats.
○ Water: crosses through special protein channels in the wall of endothelial cells.
● Passive transport: ones above: small uncharged molecules, water, chemicals that dissolve in fats.
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