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Samenvatting toelatingstoets selectie psychologie/psychology
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Samenvatting toelatingstoets selectie psychologie/psychology
[Meer zien]Voorbeeld 4 van de 42 pagina's
Voorbeeld 4 van de 42 pagina's
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Voorbeeld van de inhoud
Research methodologyPsychology is a science. Because they are scientists, psychologists gain accurate knowledge about
behavior and mental processes only by observing the world and measuring aspects of it. This approach
is called empiricism.
Empiricism = The view that all concepts originate in experience, that all concepts are about or
applicable to things that can be experienced, or that all rationally acceptable beliefs or propositions
are justifiable or knowable only through experience.
2.1 Science Has Four Primary Goals
There are four primary goals of science: description, prediction, control, and explanation.
Thus, the goals of psychological science are to describe what a phenomenon is, predict when it will
occur, control what causes it to occur, and explain why it occurs.
Research = A scientific process that involves the careful collection, analysis, and interpretation of data.
Data = A collection of measurements gathered during the research process.
Scientific method = A systematic and dynamic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena,
used to achieve the goals of description, prediction, control, and explanation; it involves an interaction
between research, theories, and hypotheses.
Theory = A model of interconnected ideas or concepts that explains what is observed and makes
predictions about future events. Theories are based on empirical evidence.
Hypothesis = A specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based on.
The best theories are those that produce a wide variety of testable hypotheses. An especially
important feature of good theories is that they should be falsifiable. That is, it should be possible to
test hypotheses that show the theory is wrong.
Good theories also tend toward simplicity. This idea has historical roots in the writings of the
fourteenth-century English philosopher William of Occam. This principle is known as Occam’s razor or
the law of parsimony.
Why was Freud’s theory of dreams not a good theory? ; It did not yield testable hypotheses.
,2.2 The Scientific Method Tests Hypothesis
The scientific method follows a series of seven steps:
Theory: ‘Safe driving requires paying attention’.
Step 1: Frame a Research Question: "Does paying attention to texting interfere with driving ability?"
Step 2: Conduct a Literature Review: A literature review is a review of the scientific literature related
to your theory
Step 3: Form a Hypothesis: “Using a cell phone while driving is associated with more accidents.”
Step 4: Design a Study: Designing a study refers to deciding which research method (and thus, level of
analysis) you want to use to test your hypothesis.
Step 5: Conduct the Study: Recruit participants and measure their responses.
Step 6: Analyze the Data: First, you want to describe the data. Second, you will want to know what
conclusions you can draw from your data.
Step 7: Report the Results
In the scientific method, what do you call a specific, testable prediction? ; hypothesis
2.3 The Scientific Method Is Cyclical
No theory would be discarded on the basis of one set of data. Instead, we have more confidence in
scientific findings when research outcomes are replicated.
Replication involves repeating a study to see if the results are the same (or similar).
Replication = Repetition of a research study to confirm or contradict the results.
If you have multiple theories, you can design critical studies that directly contrast the theories to see
which theory best explains the data.
Replication is another means of strengthening support for some theories, helping weed out weaker
theories, and refining theories to make them more precise.
Why is considering context important for replications? ; People change over time and may differ
across circumstances, such as different cultures. Such changes and differences may affect study
results.
2.4 Evaluating Scientific Findings Requires Critical Thinking
Critical thinking
The first step in critical thinking is to question information. For any claim you see or hear, ask yourself,
“What is the evidence in support of that claim?” Another aspect of questioning when thinking critically
is to ask for the definition of each part of the claim. For example, what do they mean by “using a cell
phone”? Do they mean talking or texting? Do they mean a handheld or a hands-free device? And what
do they mean by “intoxicated”? Would achieving this state require only a little alcohol or a lot of
alcohol? Could the person have used another drug? Answering questions of this kind is the second step
in critical thinking: the evaluation of information. To answer our questions, we need to go to the
source of the claim. To get to the source of any claim, you need to think about where you first saw or
heard the claim. Next, you need to think about the evidence offered by the source to support the claim.
Does the evidence at the source of the claim take the form of scientific evidence?
,In science, well-supported evidence typically means research reports based on empirical data that are
published in peer-reviewed journals. In science, well-supported evidence typically means research
reports based on empirical data that are published in peer-reviewed journals Peer-Reviewed Journals
Research reports in peer-reviewed journals are the most trustworthy source for scientific evidence.
“Peer review” is a process by which other scientists with similar expertise evaluate and critique
research reports before publication.
Why is peer review important in the research cycle? ; It helps ensure that studies have been well
designed, conducted in an ethical manner, and address an important question.
What Types of Studies Are Used in Psychological Research?
There are three main types of research methods: descriptive, correlational, and experimental.
Variable = Something in the world that can vary and that the researcher can manipulate (change),
measure (evaluate), or both.
2.5 Descriptive Research Consists of Case Studies, Observation, and Self-Report Methods
Descriptive research involves observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively and
systematically. Descriptive research cannot achieve the goals of control and explanation (only the true
experimental method, described later in this chapter, can do that). In no case does the investigator
control the behavior being observed or explain why any particular behavior occurred.
There are three basic types of descriptive research methods:
1. Case studies
2. Observations
3. Self-report methods and interviews
Descriptive research = Research methods that involve observing behavior to describe that behavior
objectively and systematically.
1: Case study = A descriptive research method that involves the intensive examination of an unusual
person or organization. By intensive examination, we mean observation, recording, and description.
The goal of a case study is to describe the events or experiences that lead up to or result from the
exceptional aspect.
Because only one person or organization is the focus of a case study, scientists cannot tell from that
study if the same thing would happen to other people or organizations who have the same
experience(s). The findings from case studies do not necessarily generalize, or apply to the general
population.
2: Participant Observation = A type of descriptive study in which the researcher is involved in the
situation.
2: Naturalistic Observation = A type of descriptive study in which the researcher is a passive observer,
separated from the situation and making no attempt to change or alter ongoing behavior.
These observational techniques involve the systematic assessment and coding of overt behavior.
3: Self-Report Methods = Methods of data collection in which people are asked to provide information
about themselves, such as in surveys or questionnaires. They can be used to gather data from a large
number of people in a short time. They are easy to administer and cost-efficient.
, 3: Interviews = Another type of interactive method, can be used successfully with groups that cannot
be studied through surveys or questionnaires, such as young children. Interviews are also helpful in
gaining a more in-depth view of a respondent’s opinions, experiences, and attitudes.
What is a major limitation of case studies? ; Their findings might not generalize, or apply, to
people beyond the particular case.
2.6 Descriptive Studies Need to Guard Against Bias
A problem common to all descriptive studies is that behavior may be affected by being studied. For
instance, one problem in asking-based methods of data collection is that people often introduce biases
into their answers. Researchers therefore have to consider the extent to which their questions produce
socially desirable responding, or faking good, in which the person responds in a way that is most
socially acceptable.
Reactivity = The phenomenon that occurs when knowledge that one is being observed alters the
behavior being observed.
The Hawthorne effect refers to changes in behavior that occur when people know that others are
observing them (p. 15).
Observer bias = Systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer’s expectations.
Cultural norms can affect both the participants’ actions and the way observers perceive those actions.
Experimenter expectancy effect = Actual change in the behavior of the people or nonhuman animals
being observed that is due to the expectations of the observer.
Suppose that students who know they are in a study of race relations are careful to avoid
saying anything offensive. What concern might you have about this study? ; The study
results—the participants’ behaviors—are possibly being affected by reactivity.
2.7 Correlational Studies Describe and Predict How Variables Are Related
Correlational studies = A research method that describes and predicts how variables are naturally
related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them or assign causation
between them.
Correlational studies are used to describe and predict relationships between variables. They cannot
be used to determine the causal relationship between the variables. Many people score well on tests
but do not perform well in school. Alternatively, many people score poorly on standardized tests but
enjoy great success in college.
Scatterplot = A graphical depiction of the relationship between two variables.
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