Samenvatting
Samenvatting Hersenen en Gedrag (Kalat, Cacioppo & Freberg)
- Instelling
- Universiteit Utrecht (UU)
Samenvatting van alle leesstof voor het tentamen hersenen en gedrag aan de Universiteit van Utrecht.
[Meer zien]Voorbeeld 3 van de 22 pagina's
Voorbeeld 3 van de 22 pagina's
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Voorbeeld van de inhoud
Maartje van LoefUU
Samenvatting hersenen en gedrag
(Cacioppo H.1 (p.1-29) & Kalat H.1 (p. 30-52)
Psychology: scientific study of behaviour, mental process and brain functions.
Helmholtz: reaction faster in tigh than toe: farther from the brain.
Eerste psycholoog: Wilhem Wundt.
Structuralism: theory in which the mind could be broken down into the smallest elements of mental
experience.
Gestalt psychology: structuralism leads to loss of some important psychological info. Look at the
whole.
Functionalism: views behavior as purposeful bc it led to survival. Interested in why behaviour worked
in a particular way. The value of an activity depends on its consequences.
Humanistic psychology: instead of focussing on what went wrong in peoples lives, they focus on how
to be good. Client-centered therapy.
Behaviourism: concentrates on observable, measurable behaviors. Classical (pavlovian) conditioning.
Operante conditionering: law of effect: behaviour followed by pleasant outcomes is more likely to
occur in the future than behaviors followed by unpleasant outcomes.
Perspectives of psychology:
- Biological (behavioral neuroscience): focuses on the relationships between mind and
behaviour and their underlying biological processes.
- Evolutionary: attempts to answer the question of how our psysical structure and behaviour
have been shaped by their contributions to our species’ survival.
- Cognitive: focuses on the process of thinking/processing of information.
- Developmental: explores the normal changes in behaviour that occur across the life span.
- Social/personality: describes the effects of social environment, including social and cultural
diversity.
- Clinical: seeks to explain psychological disorders.
Mind-brain problem (mind-body problem): question of how mind relates to brain activity.
3 general points:
- Perception occurs in your brain.
- Mental activity and certain types of brain activity are inseparable: monism: one type of
being. Dualism: mind is one substance and matter is another.
- We should be cautious about what is an explanation and what is not.
4 categories of biological explanations:
- Physiological: relates a behaviour to the activity of the brain/other organs.
- Ontogenetic: describes how a structure or behaviour develops.
- Evolutionary: reconstructs the evolutionary history of a structure or behaviour.
- Functional: describes why a structure or behaviour evolved as it did.
Genes: units of heredity that maintain their structural identity from 1 generation to another. Come in
pairs bc they are aligned along chromosomes: strands of genes. A gene is part of a chromosome
composed of double stranded molecule deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA: template for synthesis of
RNA: serves as template for synthesis of protein molecules. DNA: A, G, T, C. RNA: A, G, C, U. protein:
20 amino acids, 3 bases per acid.
Homozygous for a gene: same genes on your 2 copies of some chromosome.
Heterozygous: unmatched pair of genes.
Dominant/recessive.
Sex-linked genes: on the sex chromosomes (designated X & Y). usually mean x linked, bc y contains
relatively few genes. all others: autosomal chromosomes.
Sex-limited genes: both sexes have them, but sex hormones activate them in one sex and not the
other.
Mutation: heritable change in a DNA molecule. Deletion/duplication.
, Maartje van Loef
UU
Epigenetics: deals with changes in gene expression. Genes can be turned off/on.
3 kinds of evidence that determine heritability:
- Compare monozygotic / dizygotic twins.
- Adopted children
- Identify specific genes linked to certain behaviour.
Evolution: change over generations in the frequencies of various genes in a population.
Artificial selection: breeders: choosing individuals with a desired trait and make them the parents of
the next generation.
Misconceptions about evolution:
- Use or disuse of a structure causes and evolutionary increase or decrease: Lamarck.
- Have humans stopped evolving?
- Is evolution improvement? Fitness: the number of copies of ones genes that endure in later
generations.
- Does evolution benefit individual or species? Neither, benefits the genes.
Evolutionary psychology: altruistic behaviour: action that benefits someone other than the actor.
Kin-selection: selection for a gene that benefits the individuals relatives.
Reciprocal altruism: idea that individuals help those who will return the favour.
Group selection: altruistic groups thrive better than less cooperative ones.
Reasons to study on nonhumans:
- Underlying mechanisms of behaviour are similar across species and sometimes easier to
study in nonhumans.
- We are interested in animals for their own sake.
- What we learn about animals sheds light on human evolution.
- Legal or ethical restrictions prevent certain kinds of research on humans.
Legal standard: 3 r’s: reduction of animal numbers, replacement (by computers) if possible,
refinement to reduce pain/discomfort.
Minimalists: tolerate certain types of animal research but wish to limit.
Abolitionists: completely against animal research.
(Kalat H.1 p.36-75)
Neurons: receive information and transmit it to other cells.
Glia: serve many functions.
Animal cells: membrane, nucleus (contains chromosomes), mitochondrion (performs metabolic
activities, powerhouse), ribosomes (synthesize new protein molecules), endoplasmic reticulum
(network of thin tubes that transport newly synthesized proteins).
Neurons:
- soma (cell body): nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria.
- dendrites (branching fibers that get narrower near the end. To soma. Dendritic spines: short
outgrowths that increase the surface area available for synapses.
- axon: thin fiber of constant diameter. Away from soma. Long.
Motor neuron: soma in spinal cord, receives excitation through its dendrites and conducts impulses
along its axon to a muscle..
Sensory neuron: highly sensitive to a particular type of stimulation, conducts info to the spinal cord.
Axon: covered in myelin sheath with interruptions: nodes of ranvier. End of axon: presynaptic
terminal: end bulb: releases chemicals that cross through the junctions between neuron and cell.
Afferent axon: brings info into structure
Efferent axon: carries info away from structure
Interneuron/intrinsic neuron: if a cells dendrites and axon are entirely contained within a single
structure.
Glia: outnumber neurons in cerebral cortex.
- astrocytes: wrap around synapses of functionally related axonsshields it from chemicals
circulating in the surround. Important for generating rhythms.
, Maartje van Loef
UU
- microglia: part of immune system: removes viruses from brain, removing weakest synapses.
- Oligondendrocytes (brain) & schwann cells (peripheral): build myelin sheaths. Supply axon
nutrients.
- radial glia: guide migration of neurons during embryonic development.
Blood brain barrier: mechanism that excludes most chemicals from the vertebrate brain. Small
uncharged molecules or ones that dissolve in fats of the membrane can cross, other chemicals use
active transport: protein mediated process that expends energy to pump chemicals from the blood
into the brain.
Most cells: carbs, fats for nutrition, vertebrate neurons use glucosemetabolizing glucose requires
oxygen. Thiamine: deficiency causes inability to use glucose.
H.2(p. 76-107)
Synapse: specialized gap between neurons.
Reflex: automatic muscular response to stimuli. Reflex arc: circuit from sensory neuron to muscle
response.
Temporal summation: repeated stimuli within a brief time.
Pre/ post synaptic neurons.
Graded depolarization: excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP): may be either depolarizations
(excitatory) or hyperpolarizations (inhibitory).
Spatial summation: summation over space.
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP): temporary hyperpolarization of a membrane, occurs when
synaptic input selectively opens the gates for potassium (+) to leave and for chloride (-) to enter.
Most neurons have spontaneous firing rate: periodic production of action potentials even without
synaptic input.
Sequence of chemical events at a synapse:
- Neuron synthesizes chemicals that serve as neurotransmitters (small ones in axon terminals,
neuropeptides in cell body)
- Action potentials travel down the axon. Causes calcium to enter, releasing neurotransmitter
in the synaptic cleft.
- Neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic receptor, alter activity.
- Separation from receptors.
- Neurotransmitters are recycled or diffuse away.
- Postsynaptic cells send reverse messages to control further release by presynaptic cells.
Vesicles: tiny packets of neurotransmitter in presynaptic terminal.
MAO: breaks down transmitters to prevent accumulation to harmful levels.
Ionotropic effect: when neurotransmitter binds to receptor and opens channel (transmitter gated or
ligand gated) effect begins quickly, and decay quickly. Usually depend on glutamate or
acetylcholine (excitatory), or GABA (inhibitory).
Metabotropic effect: initiating a sequence of metabolic reactions that start slowly butt last longer
than ionotropic effects. Second messenger: provided by G-protein (energy storing molecule),
communicates to areas within the cell instead of just to the postsynaptic cell (first messenger).
Neuropeptides: requires repeated stimulation. Neurons dont release them often, but when they do
its substantial amounts alter gene activityeffects last long.
Hallucinogenic drugs: drugs that distort perception. Some resemble neurotransmitters, allows them
to bind to receptors.
Nicotine: stimulates acetylcholine receptorsrelease dopamine.
Opiate drugs: relief pain by acting on same receptors as endorphins.
Reuptake: presynaptic neuron takes up intact neurotransmitters for re-use through transporters. Non
usable ones are broken down by COMT (enzyme). Some drugs block reuptake: prolonging effect.
Autoreceptors: respond to released transmitter by inhibiting further synthesis and release (negative
feedback).
Gap junction: direct contact of one membrane of a neuron with another at an electrical synapse.
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