Artikelen onderwijsleerproblemen
Wery & Thomson (2013). Motivational strategies to enhance effective learning in teaching
struggling students
Introduction:
Struggling students and those with exceptional education needs often have apathetic attitudes or poor
behaviours that exacerbate their problems in school. The most difficult time teachers encounter when teaching
struggling students is related to motivational aspects. Beyond solid teaching methods, improving students’
motivation is the key for academic and behavioural success. Intrinsic motivation is significantly correlated with
academic achievement in students with learning difficulties (LD).
Motivation: a synthesis from psychological perspectives
Motivation is defined as the individual’s desire to participate in the learning process with the reasons or goals
that underlie involvement or non-involvement in academic activities. The field of motivation has several major
research-supported theories recognizing the role of f personal beliefs, environment and socialisation as key
elements. This article focuses primarily on the theoretical perspective from the Expectancy– Value Theory and
the Achievement Theory.
Achievement theory:
Achievement Theory describes motivation as patterns of beliefs and feelings about success, effort, ability,
errors, feedback and standards of evaluation. In Achievement Theory, learners either approach or avoid either
mastery or performance goals. Mastery goals are those in which the aim is to learn and individuals compare
their ability to themselves, whereas in performance goals the aim is to learn enough to appear as or more
competent than others. The approach towards mastery goals is the most adaptive motivation orientation,
which is characterised by attributing failure to insufficient effort, sustained or enhanced persistence and
performance on difficult tasks, with positive affect.
Avoidance of mastery goals is avoiding failure or avoiding losing one’s skills and abilities, forgetting
what has been learned or misunderstanding the material, leaving the task incomplete. avoidance of mastery
goals is characterised by a more ‘helpless’ response, in which failure is attributed to insufficient ability,
decreased performance and persistence, and negative affect. Avoidance of mastery goals, however, is not as
limiting as avoidance of performance goals.
In performance goals the aim is to demonstrate one’s own competence or ability, whereas the
avoidance of performance goals is when the aim is to avoid the demonstration of one’s incompetence or
inability. It is believed that those oriented towards avoidance of performance goals have the most limiting
outcome
Expectancy- Value theory:
Expectancy–Value Theory describes motivation as being influenced by the relative value of a task along with
the probability of success in completing that task. The probability of success is influenced by self-perceptions
and self-efficacy. Tasks are seen as more valuable when they are central to one’s own sense of self because
they provide an opportunity to express or confirm important aspects of the self.
Key concepts from motivational theories:
Below key concepts of these motivational theories are described and then followed by characteristics of
reluctant learners;:
intrinsic motivation = being rewarded from within oneself and participating purely out of curiosity, the
need to know more about something, or the desire to contribute or complete a task. Intrinsically
motivated students persist with the assigned task even when difficult, will not require any rewards or
incentives, are more likely to be excited by the challenge of an activity, and are more likely to retain
learned concepts and to feel confident about tackling unfamiliar learning tasks.
Extrinsic motivation = undertaking tasks purely for the sake of attaining a reward or for avoiding some
punishment. Extrinsically motivated learners complete tasks as a means to an end. These people have
, to be encouraged, enticed or prodded by teachers. Rewards can be tangible (sweets, money etc.) or
non-tangible (verbal praise, a smile etc.).
Beyond intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation:
For many years, tangible, or extrinsic reinforcement has been used to modify the behaviour of students with
academic and behavioural problems. Recently, however, this has been questioned. Some have found that
emphasising external constraints, such as surveillance, bribes, threats, evaluation by others and rewards,
weakens intrinsic motivation and performance. The use of extrinsic rewards and incentives for modifying
behaviour in students with exceptional education needs (EEN) may be contrary to some current motivation
theories and may have detrimental effects on the intrinsic motivation of learners with and without academic
problems. However, we have to keep in mind that no one of us is intrinsically motivated under all conditions.
Characteristics of reluctant learners and typical learning behaviours:
Students who expect to fail, and are unable to find a way to avoid that failure, may use other methods to
‘justify’ their failure to themselves and others. They place the blame for their poor performance elsewhere or
they use self-handicapping strategies. These ‘strategies’ allow students to put the blame on the lack of effort
rather than allowing others to see that they were unable to complete the task. Some students may also choose
to hide their inability by cheating. They either appear to have the correct answer, or if they happen to choose
to cheat from a student who did not do well, they can blame that person for their lack of success. Less common
with students with EEN, some may self-handicap by taking on too much or setting unattainably high goals as a
way to explain their failure. Struggling students may also use excuses, statements or attributions that allow one
to ‘minimize personal responsibility for events’. Three types of excuse students may use to avoid taking
responsibility after failures are:
1. one had no control in the situation
2. the obligation was unclear
3. it was not really one’s obligation
Helping reluctant learners become motivated learners:
An environment that supports students’ independence facilitates change towards more self-determined, or
intrinsic, motivation. Long-lasting changes in motivation take place through small changes happening at the
situational level that are internalised to the contextual level. Change in motivation is not an instant process but
rather takes place through a number of successful experiences eventually becoming internalised. There has
been found that a positive classroom climate and teacher interaction have a profound influence on student
achievement and motivation.
Motivation in the classroom: practical suggestions and applications
Strategies and suggestions that teachers can use in the classroom to enhance struggling students’ motivation
are:
believe your students can learn
Model enthusiasm and intrinsic motivation
Create a learning environment that is encouraging and challenging
Acknowledge the difficulty of tasks
Connect learning to the world
Set goals
Involve students in the learning process
Allow for independence
Use projects
Evaluate the task, not the student
Promote mastery learning
‘Immunise’ against the negative effects of extrinsic motivation
Use priming words = positive words associated with intrinsic motivation
Respond positively
Praise students
