acetylcholine (muscle):causes to contract
activation synthesis theory:theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating
in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story
Activation-synthesis hypothesis:a dream represents the brain's effort to make sense of the
sparse and distorted information based mostly on haphazard input originating in the pons
Acute transient global amnesia:temporary dysfunction of the hippocampus
addiction develops:synapses in the nucleus accumbens and elsewhere become more
responsive to the drug and cues associated with it, but less responsive to other types of
reinforcement
- parts of the prefrontal cortex and other brain areas that ordinarily inhibit
impulses become less active → more prone to impulsive behavior
Adrenocorticotropic hormone:stimulates the growth and secretions of the adrenal cortex
Affinity:for receptor if it binds to it
Agonist:drug mimics or increases effects.
Alarm Stage:epinephrine, cortisol and aldosterone
Alzeimer's disease:better procedural than declarative memory, Protein amyloid-β:
accumulates inside and outside neurons, damage dendritic spines, decrease synaptic input,
decrease plasticity.
Damaged structures cluster into plaques. They accumulate, and cerebral cortex,
hippocampus and other areas atrophy
AMPA and NMPA:Resting potential: ion channel is usually blocked by magnesium ions.
Permits ions to flow through only if magnesium depolarize.
Activate two axons: so many sodium ions enter though AMPA, depolarized.
Displaces magnesium molecules, open NMDA channel.
Entry of calcium is key to maintaining LTP.
Activates protein called CaMKII.
Sets in motion reactions leading to release of protein called CREB.
Regulates expression of several genes.
Epigenetic change.
Effects of CaMKII necessary for LTP and certain types of learning.
Responsible for strengthening of only highly activated synapses
AMPA receptors:get excited by glutamate can also respond to AMPA
AMPA:opens sodium channels
amphetamine:blocks serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine
amyloid-β protein in the brain:leads to atrophy of various brain areas and to
abnormalities of the tau protein → additional difficulties
amytrophic lateral sclerosis:degenerative disorder of motor neurons in the spinal cord and
brainstem --> PARALYSIS TO ARMS --> TO LEGS
Anencephaly:failure of the anterior neural tube opening to close
Anomia (Wernicke's Aphasia):inability to name objects
Antabuse:antagonizes effects of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase by binding to its copper ion.
Results in illness in combination with alcohol.
Antagonist:drug that blocks neurotransmitter
Anterior pituitary gland secretes (stress):ACTH- adrenal cortex secretes cortisol- enhanced
metabolic activity, elevated blood levels of sugar and increased alertness
anterograde amnesia:inability to form new memories
Anti-anxiety drugs:bind to the GABAA receptor → facilitate effects of GABA,
especially in the amygdala → decrease fear (GABA inhibits fear)
, antigens:surface proteins that identify cells of you
Anxiety or learned fears can:enhance the startle reflex
Aplysia:marine invertebrate related to slug. Fewer neurons, large and easy to study, virtually
identical from individual to another.
Apolipoprotein E:helps remove amyloid-β from the brain. No drug is highly effective.
Stimulate acetylcholine receptors or prolong release, increases arousal.
Associativity:pairing a weak input with a strong input enhances later response to the weak
input
Astrocytes:blood brain barrie, absorb chemicals
B cells:secrete antibodies
Backward masking:brief stimulus and final stimulus. Stimulus initially activates the primary
visual cortex in conscious and unconscious conditions, but more strongly in conscious
condition, because of less interference
Baddely and Hitch:working memory, the way we store information while working with it.
Limited capacity (7+-2items)
basal forebrain:nucleus basalis receives input from hypothalamus and basal ganglia -->
release acetylcholine
Basal Ganglia (memory):Gradual, probabilistic learning
Important for developing habits and for seeing complex patterns that may not be evident on
a single trial
basal ganglia:a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements + selects
them
BDNF:brain-derived neurotrophic factor, a neurotrophin similar to nerve growth factor
bed nucleus of the stria terminauis:set of neurons connect to the amygdala plays role with
fear
Behavioral Activation System (BAS):left brain hemispheric activity marked by low to
moderate autonomic arousal and a tendency to approach, which could characterize either
happiness or anger
behavioral inhibition system (BIS):right brain hemispheric activity sensitive to punishment
and therefore inhibits behavior that might lead to danger or pain (fear & disgust)
Benzodiazepines:drugs that lower anxiety and reduce stress bind to GABAa receptors -
Chloride channel, permits chlorine ions to enter cell, hyperpolarizing it. Surrounding
channels are four units with sites sensitive to GABA. Benzodiazepines bind to additional
sites on three of the four units. Twists receptor so that GABA binds more easily.
Benzodiazepines affect amygdala, hypothalamus, midbrain
Binocular rivalry:gradual, sweeping from one side to another. Two images don't necessarily
divide attention time equally
BNDF:action potentials backpropagate into dendrites, release BNDF. Formation and
maintenance of LTP depends on all these chemicals. Neurons with greatest production
undergo LTP
Bonobos:more language progress than common chimpanzees → species
differences, early onset of training, different training methods (observation,
imitation)
Botox injections:transmittion at synapses & nerve mucle junction are blocked
Bradykinesis:slow movement
Brief stress:enhances the immune response and facilitates memory formation
Broca's aphasia (non-fluent aphasia):damage to parts of cortex, thalamus, basal ganglia
Difficulty speaking and writing; especially grammar
