ANCIENT HISTORY I
Summary
PART I – THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
Chapter 1 – The origins of the civilisation of Egypt and Mesopotamia
Shortly before 3000BC:
Civilisations emerged on the banks of the rivers Euphrates and Tigris in Mesopotamia and the Nile in Egypt
civilisations characterised by increasing urbanisation, birth of states, invention of writing. Foundations of these
civilisations laid over a long period of time: Stone Age divided in Old, Middle and New Stone Age (based on
changes in stone implements produced during that period):
Old and Middle Stone Age: people lived off what they happened to come across followed prey into
new areas (constantly on the move)
End Middle Stone Age (c. 10.000BC): more efficient use of natural resources remain in one area for
longer period
New Stone Age (Neolithic): greater control of nature; cultivate cereals, domesticated animals
(transition took place at different times in different places, occurred in the Near East first)
Neolithic Revolution: whole process took thousands of years and first signs of fundamental changes appeared
long before Neolithic
Two different kinds of agriculture:
Rainfall agriculture: annual precipitation of at least 250 mm (practiced only in Iran, northern Iraq,
northern Syria and coastal Mediterranean) very vulnerable: slight decrease in rain result in food
crisis social and political consequences
Irrigation agriculture: include natural and artificial irrigation (practiced in Egypt) Nile flooded
before sowing season. In Mesopotamia, less regularly flooded and just before harvesting time
practice artificial irrigation
Irrigation agriculture more productive than rainfall agriculture crop yield ratios of at least 15:1, so high
because of irrigation agriculture and sowing plough
Two consequences of development of agriculture:
People remain settled in one particular area for longer period of time
People concentrate their attention on activities other than food production started to specialize
kinds of crafts (carpenters, tanners, scribes (after invention of writing 3400BC), metalworkers
(3000BC)).
Civil service and priesthood emerged (also the state and temple) fortified cities: Jericho
The core of a Mesopotamian city was the temple grew into powerful organisations (wide range of activities;
agriculture, stock breeding, various crafts employed staff) requirements of temple economy led to
invention of writing between 3400-3200BC cuneiform script (Mesopotamian), hieroglyphic script emerged
around same time in Egypt:
First: partly pictographic (word represented by a picture) and ideographic (word represented by a
symbol)
Later: signs came to stand for sounds (syllables)
Both scripts highly complex, only used by specially trained professional scribes
Important contrast between sedentary and nomadic way of life major difference in subsistence patterns:
Agriculturalists: sedentary life; remained settled in one area (because they had to till their land and
look after the crops)
Herders: nomadic way of life; constantly moved
Primitive agriculturalists: remained in one area for short period of time, then moved again after few
years when soil was exhausted
Some herders moved around in small area: from summer pastures to winter pastures seasonal migration:
transhumance.
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,Transhumant nomads remained in vicinity of settlements of the agriculturalists exchange products
Throughout history these two opposed ways of life had ambivalent relation towards one another sedentary
people were afraid of being plundered by (semi)nomads and the groups were dependent on each other for the
exchange of products
Geographical conditions of Egypt and Mesopotamia similar:
Dependent on river water due to absence of rain
Poor in various important resources (metal, timber)
Also different:
Conditions more favourable in Egypt (flooded before sowing season) than in Mesopotamia (flooded
before harvest time)
Mesopotamians had to conduct water to their fields via canals
Water of Nile was of better quality; water of Euphrates and Tigris contained harmful salts which
became mixed with groundwater groundwater level of the flat land was very high salts migrated
to surface of land via cracks in the clay soil unfit for cultivation because of salinisation (cultivated
barley because resistant to salt)
In Egypt transition from arable land to desert sand was abrupt. In Mesopotamia transition from fertile
to less fertile land more gradual
Egypt was less accessible because of uninhabitable deserts more isolated.
History of Egypt was fairly stable and static, little interference from outside. History of Mesopotamia
characterised by constant invasions of foreign peoples new people assumed control and founded new
empires, but: continuity was preserved because most newcomers adapted themselves to the original
occupants’ cultural traditions
Chapter 2 – The Third Millennium
The Early Bronze Age
Egypt, the old Kingdom (c. 2600-2150BC)
The history of ancient Egypt is divided into periods in two different ways:
On the basis of ‘dynasties’: devised by Egyptian priest Manetho chronology of Egypt between
thirty dynasties/royal houses
On the basis of ‘kingdoms’: modern comprise periods in which Egypt enjoyed prosperity and
political unity. They alternate with ‘intermediate periods’ of political fragmentation (not ruled by a
single king but by several local governors with independence in their own provinces)
Dynasties were consequently in power at same time a fact that escaped Manetho (he arranged the
dynasties in successive order)
Egypt in chronological order:
Old Kingdom (c. 2600-2150)
Construction of pyramids (shows power kings have over manpower and material resources). Pyramids were
built near Memphis, capital of ancient Egypt. Great efforts from workers to construct pyramids
understandable because: kingship was rewarded as divine institution. Building pyramids shows organisational
capacity of early Egyptian state. Largest monuments built during fourth dynasty (c. 2500BC); all of stone.
Younger pyramids built of mudbrick (are smaller). Hieroglyphic texts (religious and autobiographical) found in
pyramids papyrus archives of royal mortuary temples give glimpse of temple economy.
The Old Kingdom lasted for five centuries, by the end the provincial governors became so powerful that
pharaoh no longer able to sustain central authority. Provincial governors gave land as form of ‘salary’ (land and
office passed on from father to son pharaoh lost hold on his officials). Area flooded by Nile decreased
famine appeared. Unclear what was more important: regional power, ecological stress or dynastic crisis.
The Middle Kingdom (c. 2000-1800)
The New Kingdom (c. 1550-1100)
Late Period (c. 750-332BC): ruled by foreign dynasties or incorporated in powerful empires
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, Period after: part of empires of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian dynasty of the Ptolemies, the
Romans, Arabs, Turks and British. It regained independence in 1922
Between 3400-3100BC the first evidence of hieroglyphic script found in Abydos (Upper Egypt). By c. 3000BC
Egypt was unified by one ruler, but the history of the country is characterised by a distinction between Lower
Egypt (Nile Delta) and Upper Egypt (south of Delta up to First Cataract). The king was called ‘Lord of the Double
Land’, pharaohs wore double crowns, some administrative tasks performed separately for north and south.
Foundations for Mesopotamia laid in fourth millennium, but Sumerians and then Akkadians brought fruition in
third millennium. The Sumerians made the cities great;
Made use of the art of writing for keeping accounts in their temples and palaces and composing
religious and literary texts
Sculpture, architecture, religious imagery, literary styles, views on kingship, law and society
Laid groundwork for various sciences (arithmetic, astronomy, botany and medicine) all different
professions showed development of specialisation enabled by economic improvements caused by
irrigation agriculture
Division hour into 60 minutes and circle 360 degrees
Their cuneiform script was adopted in regions far away cultural history of Western Asia infused with
Sumerian civilisation this profusion not achieved by military expansion. The Sumerians revolved around the
temple, led by priest-ruler. Later on a dichotomy (contrast) emerged secular ruler; had leadership in war
operating independently alongside high priest birth kingship besides temple a palace arose with own
bureaucracy, estates and workshops. A king could capture other cities. Sumerians regarded kingship as matter
of course, something that had come down from heaven.
Palace and temple were two most powerful organisations in Mesopotamia in each other’s sphere of
influence sometimes quarrel, but could also be of help to each other. Kings would commission and support
construction of temples.
Akkadians are called after Akkad city centre of an empire around 2300BC. Founded by king Sargon.
Akkadians were Semites: speakers of Sematic language. The Akkadians were in Mesopotamia at beginning of
third millennium, but when they started using cuneiform script for their own language, they stood out as
distinct group. The Akkadians borrowed from Sumerians: script, religious imagery, scientific principles and
literary styles. But they worshipped their own deities and used their own language. King Sargon’s successors
claimed hegemony over entire world: ‘King of the Four Quarters of the World’; had themselves deified. Unable
to prevent local revolts and invasions of tribes downfall of their empire.
Collapse of Akkadian empire revival of several Sumerian cities: ‘Sumerian renaissance’ (c. 2100-2000BC).
Kings of Ur (‘Third Dynasty of Ur’) founded empire in Mesopotamia. This empire was overthrown by invaders
(plundered and destroyed by Elamites and invaders from the west, Amorites) attracted to Mesopotamia by
fertile river valleys. They cut off the cities’ grain supplies, local officials sever their ties with Ur and established
own independent dynasties. Climate change was also important in that period: drier conditions increasing
pressure of steppe nomads on river valleys crises in Egypt and Mesopotamia end third millennium caused by
same climatic phenomenon.
The third millennium BC ended with period of confusion. But, firm basis could continue: Egyptian painting,
relief carving, free-standing sculpture acquired distinctive features remain unchanged for centuries.
Sumerian died out as spoken language, but continued as written language for religious and scholarly purposes.
Akkadian became spoken and international language for correspondence and administration; literary texts
too. Sumero-Akkadian was powerful influence.
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, Chapter 3 – The Second Millennium
The Middle Bronze Age (c. 2000-1600)
Egypt, the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000-1800) and the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1800-1550)
Shortly before 2000BC:
Governors in Thebes restored unity in Egypt Thebes capital. Earliest mention of towns Jerusalem and
Shechem. Most powerful kings of Middle Kingdom was twelfth dynasty:
They led military campaigns into Levant (no permanent control over that area). Campaigns to the
south more successful: up to the Third Cataract
Exploits in their home country: brought Fayyûm Oasis into cultivation that area centre of
government
Put an end to succession problems: choosing one of their sons as successor and appointing him co-
regent during their lives
During the reign of the Kings of the twelfth dynasty pyramids and temples for the death arose in Fayyûm.
Middle Kingdom was golden age of Egyptian culture (literature) hieroglyphs gained classical shape and
literary works gained good quality ‘classics’.
Around 1800BC:
Power of kings started to decline unity was lost. An end to campaigns and fewer building projects
beginning of the ‘Second Intermediate Period’ (c. 1800-1550BC). Egypt was now ruled by foreigners: the
Hyksos (came from Levant) settled in the Nile Delta. Hyksos gained control over Delta establish own
dynasties. Other local rulers forced to acknowledge suzerainty of Hyksos dynasty.
Mesopotamia, the old Assyrian and old Babylonian periods
Early second millennium:
Birth of two nations: Assyria and Babylonia dominate history of Mesopotamia. These nations’ power rise
due to the Amorites (settled here end third millennium). Infiltration of semi-nomadic people in an area with
high developed culture, followed by newcomers’ assumption of power happened a lot during history of
ancient Near East. Amorites gained control over Assur, Babylon and Mari, but not relinquish their nomadic way
of life hybrid position (‘King of the city of X, chief of tribe Y’). Amorites influenced culture of Mesopotamia,
but also assimilated Sumerian and Akkadian remain written languages & cuneiform script continued.
Amorite eventually went out as spoken language.
Northern Mesopotamia: the city of Assur and the Kingdom of Shamshi-Adad I (c. 2000-1760BC)
Assur already existed during early third millennium; under dominion of Akkad and Ur. Assur gained
independence around 2000BC developed into prosperous city state:
Trade with Asia Minor and where the Assyrians acquired trading districts wealth and prominence
Recession in 1800BC followed by new period of prosperity: Amorite Shamshi-Adad I seized throne. Extended
reign over northern Mesopotamia elder son Ishme-Dagan in Ekallatum and younger son Yashmah-Addu in
Mari. Shamshi-Adad I made Shubat-Enlil capital. He was an Assyrian king, despite his Amorite background and
the fact that he ruled over and not from Assur.
Southern Mesopotamia, the old Babylonian empire (c. 1800-1600)
Fall Third Dynasty of Ur southern Mesopotamia back to independent city states. Most important: Isin and
Larsa expand territory and create small territorial states. Babylon acquired political power, even in periods
of political weakness still influence on Mesopotamian culture respected Babylonian gods, traditions and
special status. Foundations Babylonian culture laid by Amorite king Hammurabi (renowned for code of law
valuable source social structure of this period). During his reign conquered whole of southern Mesopotamia
and the Euphrates valley up to Mari. His code of law had profound and lasting influence. Ancient Babylonian
dialect exemplary for Mesopotamian writing ‘classical’.
Glory of Old Babylonian Empire was short-lived; began to crumble at Hammurabi’s successors kings
losing military power and authority, especially in south. Shortly after 1600BC Babylon was taken by Mursilis
(king of Hittite kingdom led a plundering expedition into Mesopotamia). After having sacked Babylon, he
returned to his native country (Asia Minor?) cuneiform record dries up difficult to understand what
happened next. Can see that in middle of second millennium new dynasty of Kassite took over the country.
Kassites came from Iranian mountains, but had intruded before in Babylonia. Established a powerbase around
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