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Summary for History of Psychology

Name: Summary for History of Psychology
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Universiteit Twente (UT)

For the course History of Psychology I created this complete, yet small, summary. By learning this, together with the overview I created, I got an 8 on the test.

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Summary History of Psychology
Session 2 - Origins of a Science of the Mind: From Social Practices to Theory
(1600-1800)

Two ways to organize the history of psychology:
- Ancient Greek to present or beginning modern psychology (19th century)

16th – 18th century – the period that made modern psychology change possible.

Psychology with a big ‘P’ = discipline of psychology with its scientific practices, methods,
professions, organizations and institutions.
Psychology with a little ‘p’ = psychology as a subject matter, including conceptions of the mind and
behavior that existed before the birth of a science of psychology, such as everyday psychology

What factors enabled the emergence of the modern self?
Main change = birth of modern self (individuality and autonomy), responsible for their actions and not
the communities in which they are living. (16th/17th century)  people saw themselves as part of
community not as individual

1. Protestant Reformation:
- Initiated by Luther in 1517
- Idea of salvation by personal relationship with God  personal responsibility  inwardness =
paying attention to inner life, living a good life to articles of faith
- Different from Catholic insistence on collective identity
2. New technologies of self-perception and self-expression
3. Modern capitalism and self-regulation
4. Changes in family life: birth of modern privacy
5. Physiognomy and phrenology
Can you explain what is a technology of self-expression and a technology of self-perception and
provide an example for each?
- Invention modern mirror (16th century)  seeing yourself as others see us (sense of self), self-
awareness and looking at expressions
- Diaries and letters  self-scrutiny, more in 16th century, in tune with own emotions
o Why then? Before empires with universal language, after nation states more centralization
with post-offices and migrant movements
- Technologies due to Gutenberg (movable printing press) and literacy 
o Self-help books (self-control and self-transformation, conformity to community)
o Novels (thoughts and emotions of everyday people  focus on inner life and self-
identification)
o Before: only books about observations of others, no main character.
- Philosophy of technology: technology is never neutral, they transform and mediate relationship
with the world. People had a self before 16th century, they just got access to instruments that
increased sense of self and generated greater sensitivity to individuality.

How does capitalism impact self-regulation?
- Formal marketplace exchange with strangers versus short informal value chains in a community
- Industrial revolution  urban migration and selling labor on marketplace
- Rivalry with other workers  comparison, self-monitoring and self-auditing for self-regulation
- Self-regulation and energy are key in modern capitalism:
o New technologies self-regulate (steam-engine, a self-regulating device)
o The market self-regulates, not from the state  ideal balance supply and demand

, o People must self-regulate (adapting behavior)

What changes in family life generated or reflected a new need for modern privacy?
- Before: family was extended family  18th century apart from rest of family
- Marriage based on affection  intimate space needs to be protected with privacy
- Change in home design: rooms with specific purposes, less intrusion from others
- Interesting for us, because now there looks like an ending to modern privacy

What is physiognomy?
- New technologies  read the signs of the body during industrialization and urbanization (1700s)
- Physiognomy = seeing correlations between the body and internal qualities or abilities
o Capitalism + industrial revolution  more life options  people wanted advise
o Branded as a science based on empirical observation  laws of behavior and character
connected to body parts + required experts
o First to facilitate self-management and social management

What is phrenology? Why did it claim to be “scientific”? Who invented it?
- Franz Joseph Gall (inventor)
- Objectives:
o Shape of skull showed developed brain areas which you could use more  helps with career,
marriage choice of partner, child rearing and help children succeed in marketplace
o Self-improvement: not only diagnostic, people can work on underdeveloped areas or use
developed ones.
o Well-organized with fees, instruments and books and very popular at some places till 20 th
century
- Scientific claims  not real modern science; folk wisdom + non-intellectual  replaced by hard
science based on brain localization

Time of uncertainty:
- Religious conflicts, political turmoil (English civil war)
- Modern science questions ancient authorities and religion:
o The mathematization of nature (knowledge by empirical science with applied mathematics
(observing/experimenting))
o Galileo: mathematics should be used for laws of nature
- Three problems:
1. How to rebuild knowledge from scratch?
2. How to reach certainty? (in humans and science)
3. How to build civil peace? (given the context of constant war)

 Why is Descartes’s work important for psychology?
Descartes: 1596-1650, contributions to mathematics, physics, biology, philosophy, lived in France, the
Netherlands, Sweden, took part in the 30 years’ war
- Important for:
o Foundations of knowledge and vindication of modern science
o Mind-body problem
o (Incomplete) naturalistic approach to the mind
- Descartes’ challenge:
o Descartes is arguing against several views:
 Sceptics: claim to have no knowledge or only conjectures
 Scholastics: acceptance of beliefs based on authority + rhetorical disputes
 The Catholic Church, opposed to modern science

, o Main point: If scientific knowledge cannot be firmly established, it would be no better than
scholastic knowledge and there is no reason it would be preferable to the church’s teachings
about nature
- Demolition man: if you want to reconstruct the foundations of knowledge, than you have to start
from the beginning and construct something lasting and unshakeable in science.
- Hyperbolic doubt;
o Systematically explore possible sources of alternative explanations for my beliefs and of their
perceived degree of certainty:
 Can I rule alternative explanations out?
 Any reason for doubting would provide us with less than knowledge.
 Anything that can be doubted should be regarded as false.

- Arguments leading to doubting everything:
o My sensory perceptions are sometimes unreliable, I might be dreaming, I sometimes make
mistakes in mathematics, I might be the victim of a general illusion that makes all my beliefs
false (17th century evil demon who changes reality = today’s computer simulation scenarios,
Brain-in-a-vat)
o Cogito ergo sum: I think, therefore I am. Because of all the doubts, there is not much left,
except the truth that he is thinking
- From my existence to the reconstruction of knowledge:
o Myself is independent of the existence of physical objects and the mind is prior to the body
o Controversial argument for uncovering the foundations of knowledge:
 I am a finite and thinking being, yet I have the idea of an infinite and perfect being; God
 a perfect being would not be perfect without existing  God exists God would not
deceive me, so external world exists and my senses and abilities are reliable.

 What is naturalism?
Naturalism: the view that reality is exhausted by nature, contains nothing supernatural and can be
investigated by the methods of modern science
- Materialism is older; it says that all there is, is mater. Now we don’t talk about materialism, but
physicalism. There are other forces that exists and are the primary opponents of nature.
- Naturalism, materialism and physicalism all talk about science can investigate this exhaustively

 In what sense was Descartes’ version of naturalism “incomplete”?
Descartes was an incomplete naturalist, because there was according to Descartes still a seat of the
soul that escapes from those laws

 What was Descartes’ error? Why was it a productive error?
Descartes’ productive error:
- Error: mind and body interact in a particular part of the brain (does not explain how something
immaterial can have an effect on something material and vice-versa)
- Why is it productive? Because for Descartes everything can be investigated by modern science,
including the brain, including certain acts of cognition (memory, emotions)… but not the soul.

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