Philosophy of Science Lecture
Notes
Lecture 1 – 9th of February 2022 – Ways of Knowing
Why “Philosophy of Science”?
o Helps to reflect on personal scientific practice
How do different disciplines conceptualize the world?
What does it mean to have knowledge?
How do scientists’ reason?
o Equips you to develop solutions to problems yet unknown
Ascent to abstraction
o Philosophy of science is higher abstraction
o Equipping you to meet problems coming over the horizon
Three groups of sciences
o Natural Science
Physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy
o Humanities
History, history of art, linguistics, literary studies, philosophy, religious
studies
o Social science
Sociology, political science, economics, psychology, anthropology
Natural Sciences
o Ancient intellectual endeavors
Astronomy arose in Babylonia, 1200 BCE
Modern natural science developed partly from Chinese, Indian, and
Islamic sources in the Middle Ages and Renaissance
o “Scientific revolution”
Europe, 1550-1700
o Physical universe is uniform and simple
o Natural sciences focus on universal and regularities
E.g., the phenomenon of free fall
Less interest in concrete historical particulars, such as the fall of this
stone
o Standard techniques of theorizing
Mathematization, abstraction, idealization
Yield knowledge in concise, powerful forms
o Example: laws of nature
Mathematical equations among physical quantities
Isaac Newton’s law of gravitation, 1687
o Laws as paradigms of knowledge
Taken to represent the highest grade of scientific knowledge
Even by many outside the natural sciences
Humanities
o Liberal arts in ancient and medical education were “ways of doing”
, Grammar, logic, rhetoric
o They turned gradually into subjects of study
Erasmus of Rotterdam (1467 – 1536) and other Renaissance
humanists
o And then developed into present day humanities disciplines
o World studies by the humanities
Focuses on historical human actors
o Historical actors are creative
They originate acts, texts, artworks
Creation follows no rules – unpredictable
o Important methodological consequences
o Historical particularity
Every event and context are unique
We identify periods (e.g., Renaissance, Enlightenment), but then
zoom in past these categories
o Mistrust of generalization and idealization
Highest form of knowledge is intimate knowledge of particulars
Little or no use for scientific laws
o Main output: interpretations
Of acts, texts, artworks
Often imbedded in theoretical frameworks
o Empathy, hermeneutics
We attempt to reconstruct the historical actor’s world of experiences
and meanings
o Objectivity of interpretation
We test interpretations against the text or other material
Some complications
o Both groups of disciplines are more diverse than I have described
o Variety in natural sciences
o Variety in humanities
Linguistics, archaeology use some methods inspired by the natural
sciences
Marxist historiography: belief in universal laws of historical
development
Question
o How to…
Conceptualize the differences between natural sciences and
humanities?
Analyze the diversity of the social sciences?
o Answer: using the concepts of nomothetic and ideographic approaches
Nomothetic approach
o What does the nomothetic approach consist in?
Identifying regularities in the world
Formulating generalizations and laws to describe theses regularities
Deriving explanations of observed outcomes from these
generalizations and laws
, o Typical of the natural sciences
But not unknown in humanities and social sciences
o Strength: nomothetic approach can…
Identify similarities and structures that underlie apparently diverse
cases
Yield sweeping, general knowledge
Yield economical knowledge
o Weakness: nomothetic approach can…
Erase the specificity of outcomes
Be reductive, mechanistic, positivistic
Idiographic approach
o What does the idiographic approach consist in?
Understanding the meaning of contingent, unique, and often
subjective outcomes
o Typical of the humanities
o Strength: idiographic approach can…
Reveal differences between apparently similar cases
Yield detailed, context-sensitive knowledge
o Weakness: ideographic approach can…
Be blind to general factors that constrain outcomes
Review: nomothetic/idiographic
o Nomothetic approach: tendency to…
Generalize
Explain outcomes by appeal to general rules
o Idiographic approach: tendency to…
Specify
Understand the meaning of unique, contingent, and often subjective
acts
o Tension between these approaches
Felt particularly in the social sciences
Social sciences
o Youngest group of disciplines
Originated in late 19th century French and German debates on how to
study societies
o Present day disciplines
Sociology, political science, economics, psychology, anthropology
o World of the social sciences contains…
Human agents and institutions
Forms of behavior
Rationality and ritual
Cultures
o Social sciences feel the attraction of both natural sciences and humanities
o Economics, demography
Largely nomothetic disciplines
Predominantly mathematical investigation or underlying phenomena
o Cultural anthropology, political theory
, Largely idiographic disciplines
Produce interpretations and ascribe meaning
o Diversity even within single disciplines
E.g., psychology
o Nomothetic approach
Psychometric approach to personality
Categories individuals in terms of underlying universal traits or
dimensions
o Ideographic approach
Sigmund Freud’s analysis of “kleine Hans”, a boy with a phobia of
horses, 1909
Clinical notes running up to 150 pages
Recapitulation
o Characteristics of…
Natural science, humanities, social sciences
Nomothetic and ideographic approaches
o This overview gives you a basis to…
Interpret what knowledge each discipline can product
Integrate the output of diverse disciplines
Lecture 2 – 16th of February 2022 – Knowledge, Truth,
and Facts
Lecture Breakdown
o Classification of forms of knowledge
Focus on propositional knowledge
o What is knowledge?
Knowledge as a justified true belief
o What is truth?
Correspondence theory of truth
o What is a fact?
Permanence of facts and of truth
Three forms of knowledge
o “Knowledge about” or by acquaintance
o “Knowledge how to” or skills knowledge
o “Knowledge that” or propositional knowledge
I know that P
… where P is a proposition
Here we focus on propositional knowledge
Propositional knowledge
o We regard propositional knowledge as the highest form of knowledge. Why?
It is knowledge of facts
Important in science, in logical reasoning, in arguments
o Each of us may claim many items of propositional knowledge…
In various categories
Knowledge that P: examples
o Knowledge of observed states of affairs