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Summary Psychology 223 Exam Notes
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Psychology 223 Exam Notes, which covers chapters 4-7 for Human development.
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Psychology 223, Ch. 5 , MIDDLE CHILDHOOD Notes
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Psychology 223, Ch.4, EARLY CHILDHOOD Notes
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Psychology 223 Test Notes
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Made By: Daryanvanderwath@gmail.comPsychology 223 WEEK 4
CHAPTER 4-7 CHAPTER 4
EARLY CHILDHOOD
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Aspects:
• Height and Weight
o Age 4 – double birth length
o 2kg per year
o 5-8cm per year
o 80% increase in height
o 300% increase in weight
• Physical proportions
o Loss of ‘baby fat’ and start to resemble more of a young child
• Muscle and bone growth
o Increased daily activities
o Ossification à hardening of the cartlidge and bone
• Teeth
o Lose “baby teeth” which are replaced by more permanent teeth
• Brain development
o Age of 3 = +/- 75% brain capacity
o Age of 5 = +/-90% brain capacity
o The frontal lobe areas of the cerebral cortex devoted to reasoning,
planning and organising behaviour develop rapidly which expands
language skills, enhances balance and motor control and consciousness
as the plasticity is still very high.
o Plasticity à The ability of one area of the brain to take over the function
of another brain area that has been damaged.
Characteristics:
• Perceptual development
o Age 2-3 à auditory acuity (most children are able to hear soft sounds as
well as adults do, e.g. speech sounds)
o Age 4- 6 à perception of figure-ground (children are able to recognise
objects in a busy background) improves rapidly, as well as the ability to
distinguish between the different letters, they can consistently label
colours at the age of four, the eyeballs are not fully developed by this
time thus young children tend to be more farsighted however their visual
acuity does improve during this period
• Motor development
o Gross motor skills
§ Involve the use of large muscles, e.g. the muscles used in
climbing or running or jumping (this usually occurs by age of 3)
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§ By the age of 5 children would be able to ride a bicycle and engage
in activities such as gymnastics or activities that involve co-
ordination and balance
o Fine motor skills
§ The use of the small muscles in the hands and fingers (e.g. Using
scissors or painting)
§ Children’s handiness or dexterity improves during this period thus
they will begin to show a preference of which hand they will write
with
o Bilateral coordination
§ The coordination of the left and right halves of the body to engage
in different activities
Influences:
• Heredity and hormones
o The impact of heredity on physical growth is evident throughout
childhood
o The pituitary gland sits at the base of the brain and releases the growth
hormone (also known as somatotropin) to help aid in tissue and organ
growth
o Under secretion of this growth hormone will mean that children will be
stunted in their growth and an over secretion will have the opposite
effects
o The pituitary gland plays a critical role by releasing two hormones that
induce the growth hormone is necessary for the development of all body
tissue
§ thyroid-stimulating hormone stimulates the thyroid to release
thyroxin à necessary for normal development of nerve cells of
the brain and for growth hormone to have its full impact on body
height and size
o Children who are stunted in their growth due to various factors like
malnutrition can be injected with this growth hormone at an early enough
age to be able to correct this issue
• Nutrition
o Proper nutrition is vital for optimal physical and psychological growth
o Malnutrition leads to lowered resistance to infection (such as
respiratory infections and diarrhea)
o Undernourishment, especially between conception and the age of 2, are
at risk of delayed cognitive development (delay in motor and mental
development, impaired cognitive abilities, mortality etc.)
o Obesity: this is an emerging public health crisis for children around the
world and this situation is enhanced by the fact that overweight children
tend to become overweight adults
§ In the past 30 years obesity rates have doubled and tripled in
preadolescence and adolescence
§ This risk’s diseases such as orthopaedic, neurological or
pulmonary conditions also has great mental impact: low self-
esteem and depression
o In South Africa:
§ 25% of children under the of 5 are stunted (low height ratio)
§ 10% of children are underweight
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§ 5% experience wasting (extreme loss of body tissue, especially
for their muscles)
§ 15% of children are obese
• Emotional well-being
o Influence of environmental factors (divorce, martial conflict, stress,
unemployment, and poverty)
o Psychosocial/ deprivation dwarfism à delayed physical growth as result
of stress and emotional deprivation
§ Stress resulting from such environments could have a delay on
children’s physical growth and health
§ Researchers argued that stress may have an influence on the
pituitary gland which can lead to an over or under production of
growth hormones
§ Characterised by: below average height, primary caregiver has
problems and neglects the child, the child will then flourish when
removed from this environment
o Stress – on hormones, on digestion, on immune system
§ Impacts the function of the pituitary gland
§ They will become for suspectable to viruses because stress lows
their resistance
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:
PIAGET’S THEORY: PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2-6/7 YEARS)
• The term Operation is used to refer to a mental representation that is preformed
through logical thinking.
• Preoperational thinking: illogical thinking - cannot engage in mental
operations
• Two substages: symbolic and intuitive period
• Symbolic/pre-conceptual period (2-4 years)
o Complex symbols meaning children begin to attach meaning to words,
numbers or images
• Intuitive period (4-7 years) – children so sure of their world and what they know
however can’t tell you how they’ve come to know or what exactly they know.
o Primitive reasoning, children are constantly asking “why?”
o Develop own ideas about the world, their ideas are still relativity simple
and are not yet well considered
• Advances of pre-operational thought
o Deferred imitation à the ability to repeat the behaviour of a model that is
no longer present ( For example a child, sees their father make a braai
and then on Monday, they also want to have their own braai)
o Symbolic play/pretend play à substituting imaginary situations for real
ones (for example when a child pretends that a broom stick is a horse)
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o Spoken language à with the development of language, thinking occurs
through representation of actions, rather than through actions alone,
thus the ability to understand the symbolic meanings of the words gives
the child a completely new significance to the child’s world.
• Immature aspects of pre-operational thought:
o Perceptual centration à attend to one attribute of what is observed
and ignore the rest; poor understanding of conservation
o Irreversibility à cannot reverse an operation (for example they are able
to understand that 2+3=5 but they cannot understand and reserve that 5-
3=2)
o Egocentrism à difficulty seeing things from someone else perspective
and think that the universe centres on them (the child believes that they
control the world) – three mountains drawing, the child choose the point
of view of the mountains that is their own rather than that of the doll.
o Animistic thinking à young children assume that non-living objects
have thoughts, feelings and motives
o Transductive reasoning à make links between two occurrences in
cause-and-effect fashion whether logical or not (for example a child
whose parents are getting divorced might feel as though their naughty
behaviour is the reason for the divorce)
• By the end of the pre-operational period, children should be able to classify
and categorise objects on the basis of one dimension (thus they can classify
colour and shapes but not together), but they are not capable of multiple
classification and do not have a number concept (meaning children do not
have basic number skills such as ordinality, cardinality, number
transformations and estimations)
• Evaluation of Piaget’s view:
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o Current research findings does not support Piaget’s view
o Animism is of too small a degree as young children are uncertain about
objects and they possess incomplete knowledge which leads to
mistakes
o Studies of children’s emotional development and theory of mind also
reveal that many pre-schoolers are able to display empathy and
awareness of how other people feel
o Number concept and ability to classify develops earlier than Piaget
assumed
Thinking
Description Examples
patterns
Pre-schooler’s solve problems When a mother cuts her child's meat into small
Perception-
based on what stands out vividly pieces, the child comments "Now you have given
bound thinking
and perceptually. me much more to eat."
In the liquid conservation problem, children notice
Preoperational thinkers can only
Perceptual the volume level line of the liquid, but do not take
perceive and thus reason about one
centration into consideration the size and the shape of the
dimension at a time
glasses.
A pre-schooler is drawing a picture in the living room
Pre-schoolers believe that others
and asks her mother, who is in the kitchen, if she
Egocentrism think, feel and perceive in the same
likes her drawing. The child is unable to realise that
way as they do.
her mother cannot see the drawing.
Pre-schoolers believe inanimate A child announces that her doll is sleepy and needs
Animism
objects have feelings. to go to bed.
Pre-schoolers reason from event to
Transductive Teacher: Why does it rain? Child: So we can use an
event rather than in a more logical
reasoning umbrella.
fashion.
NEO-PIAGETIANS
• They are theorist who have expanded Piaget’s work rather than contradict it
• They challenged claims that clearly defined cognitive structures associated with
distinct stages play major role in determining problem-solving abilities, so
according to them there should be some consistency in a variety of tasks at
each of the four stages of cognitive development
• However what they have found is that there are some evidence of uneven
performance of different tasks and even on the same task at different stages, for
example children understand the conservation of liquid before they understand
the conservation of mass, thus there is some inconsistency in the way that
Piaget thought about children’s conceptual development at this time.
• To address these inconsistencies, Kurt Fischer and Robbie Case have studied
cognitive development from a more domain, task and context perspective
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• Kurt Fischer’s viewpoint
o Agrees that cognitive development is an action based, self-regulating,
constructive process but he disagrees that there is a generalised
cognitive structure
o Cognitive development must be described for each task and in a different
context (thus a skill applied in one context does not mean that it will be
or can be applied in a different context)
o Cognitive development needs support from environment (helpful
parents), thus higher levels of support leads to higher cognitive
performance
• Robbie Case’s viewpoint
o Agrees development happens in stages – but progression not due to
cognitive structures.
o Thinking develops in stages and is influenced by executive processing
space (this references to active, temporary conscious memory)
o Operational efficiency - Limit to the number of schemas that children
can attend to in this space at any one time
o An improvement in operational efficiency occurs through practice and
brain maturation as the child get older, thus a 7 year old is better to
handle a conservation task than a 4 year old
NAÏVE THEORIES
• Children as theorists à children’s theories are usually called naïve theories
because they are not created by specialists, and are not evaluated by formal
research thus they are not scientific but help to understand new experience and
predict future events
• Core knowledge hypothesis à according to this hypothesis, children are born
with very basic knowledge of the world and this knowledge continues to grow as
children have new experiences
• Naïve physics:
o understanding of objects and properties
o Infants are aware of many basic facts about objects
o By the end of their first year, they have an understanding that
unsupported objects can fall and that a tall object can be partially hidden
by a short object
• Naïve biology:
o Children have a understanding about the distinction between living
(animate) and non-living objects (inanimate)
o Motion is critical to early understanding of this
o Around 15 months they are able to understand that animate objects are
self-propelled, they can move in irregular paths and they can act to
achieve certain goals
o During early childhood children’s naïve theories of biology become more
complex
o 4 years old theory of biology (properties associated with living objects)
§ Movement
§ Growth
§ Internal parts
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§ Inheritance
§ Healing
NAÏVE PSYCHOLOGY AND THE THEORY OF MIND
• Naïve psychology à individuals’ tendencies to try and explain why people act
as they do
• Theory of mind à attributing mental states (feelings, emotions, intentions, and
beliefs) to other people
• Henry Wellmen
o First phase, 2 yrs. olds à aware of and can communicate desires and
link their desires to their behaviours
o Second phase, 3yr olds à clearly distinguish mental and physical
world and can use mental verbs like (think, believe, remember and
forget) which suggests that they do have a understanding about mental
states
o Third phase, 4 yrs. olds à understand their own and others’ actions.
Understand that their own and others’ behaviour is based on beliefs
about events and situations
§ False-belief task
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