uncomfortable about themselves and how they look. Relating personality to marketing
practice, it is important to appreciate that an individual's personality represents a set of
characteristics that can be used to describe consumer segments. This has been the backdrop to
the sections about the way that the concepts of personality and identity apply in marketing
contexts.
We explained in detail one approach to segmentation using personality and identity
variables, namely the VALSTM psychographics and lifestyle scheme. Lifestyle approaches
have proved very useful, particularly to advertisers, although they are not without their
detractors. We have to consider whether we can always easily segment groups of people as
nearly as such approaches would suggest.
The final part of this chapter considered motivation and the role it plays in our
choices of products and brands. What is increasingly important, particularly in areas of public
health is finding ways to motivate people to do things that they may not wish to do but which
are probably going to improve their health. Consumer Insight 7.4 explored some of the issues
around how we can get people to take the stairs, a relatively easy way to increase activity. We
explored some of the techniques involved in motivation research and how they might be
used in marketing. Again, while these techniques have been used for many years we should
remember that they have their detractors and are very dependent on the interpretation by the
researcher.
Part 3: Macro-view of Consumption
Chapter 8: Groups, social processes, and communications
Reference groups
Reference groups are those groups that are used by a person as a basis for comparison and
guidance when forming their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours. Reference groups were first
defined by Hyman (1942) as reference points that individuals use to evaluate their situation.
Park and Lessig (1977: 102) developed the concept to include ‘an actual or imaginary
institution, individual or group conceived as having significant relevance upon an individual’s
evaluations, aspirations or behaviour’. This broadens the idea of reference groups from an
individual person to an institution (real or imaginary).
Reference groups can be described across two dimensions: membership and attractiveness
of the group. Membership groups are those to which we belong (termed contractual,
identificational, or associative) and those which we no longer wish to be associated with
(disclaimant). There are also groups to which we aspire to belong (aspirational) and others
which we wish to avoid entirely (avoidance or dissociative).
,Contactual or associative groups are generally close groups with which we interact regularly
and where there is a degree of proximity (nabijheid).
A disclaimaint group is one that we currently belong to, or perhaps belonged to in the past,
but no longer want to associate ourselves with.
Aspirational groups are composed of people that the consumer can identify with or admire
(often from afar), and aspires to be like in some way. Often the aspirational group is actually
an individual representing some state or position we aspire to be like (sports personalities,
actors)
Dissociative or avoidance groups are groups we have negative feelings towards and whom
we avoid being associated with. They differ from disclaimant groups in that we have never
been members of such groups, and we associate negative feelings with them for their intrinsic
qualities rather than because we or they have changed.
Reference groups are also classified as formal or informal. A formal group is one that is
usually formed by some kind of outside structure, and it is likely to have a formalized
constitution and set of rules of conduct for members. Formal groups can impact consumption
when they exert power, often in terms of institutional expectations where individuals are
required to conform. An informal group is formed by a group of individuals who have some
sort of commonality but no formal connection to each other. They may get together because
they have a mutual interest such as gardening or singing), through common values (e.g.
boycotting group), or through friendship.
Similarly, you may find informal groups within a formal group. Thus you may work within a
large organization (formal group), but within that be part of an informal book group or five-a-
side football. In summary, there are many different ways of viewing the types of reference
groups to which consumers belong or are influenced by, and these are summarized in Table
8.2.
,Reference group influence
Mechanisms of reference group influence
Leigh (1989) recognized that reference group influence can be direct from the reference group
to individual members, or indirect through an individual observing the behaviour of group
members and altering his/her own behaviour because of it. There are three main mechanisms
of reference group influence: informational, utilitarian, and value-expressive (Park and
Lessig, 1977).
- Informational group influence is when a consumer uses the reference group
to actively get information from opinion leaders of expert groups. The person
will attribute benefits to the product through its association with the group or
individual.
- Utilitarian reference group influence is when a person is influenced in their
choice of brand by the preferences of those with whom they socialize,
including family members and work colleagues.
- Value-expressive influence is when someone buys a particular brand to
enhance their image and because they admire characteristics of people who use
the brand.
Bearden and Etzel (1982) examined how reference group influence varied in relation to where
consumption occurs (private versus public) and the extent to which it is considered a necessity
or a luxury. Figure 8.7 gives an overview of the model, indicating the flows of influence we
would expect to see for luxury and necessity products and brands consumed in public and
privately.
How we decide which goods and services are a luxury or a necessity changes over time and
across different cultures. What we can see in this work is that the influence of reference
groups is high for products and brands that are typically consumed in public spaces, and this
is even more so when the item is a luxury (in contrast with necessities). Bearden and Etzel
, (1982) then considered products consumed in private and concluded that the reference group
influence is strong for luxury privately consumed goods (i.e. ice-cream maker), whereas it is
weak for privately consumed necessity goods (something that virtually everyone owns, such
as a mattress). Mattresses, floor lamps, refrigerators: public necessities with weak reference
group influence.
Development of conformity
Conformity: adaption of behaviour resulting from real or perceived pressure to comply with
a person or group.
Mann (1969) identified four types of conformity: normative, informational, compliance and
internalization.
- Normative conformity: when a person wants to fit in with the group or is
afraid of being rejected by them and will publicly accept the group’s view even
if privately they do no agree.
- Informational conformity: when someone actively looks for guidance from
the group where they lack knowledge or are in an ambiguous situation.
- Compliance: publicy changing behaviour to fit in with the group but privately
disagreeing, i.e. a behaviour shift without an attitudinal one.
- Internalization: involves both an attitudinal and behaviour change in favour
of the group.
