Sport psychology
College 1 - Chapter 1: Welcome to sport and exercise psychology ................................................................... 6
Defining sport and exercise psychology ............................................................................................................. 6
Specializing in sport psychology ......................................................................................................................... 6
Distinguishing between two specialties ............................................................................................................. 6
Peak performance .............................................................................................................................................. 8
College 1 - Chapter 2: science and professional practice of sprot and exercise psychology .............................. 9
College 2 - Chapter 5 arousal, stress, and anxiety ........................................................................................... 11
Defining arousal and anxiety ............................................................................................................................ 11
Measuring arousal and anxiety ........................................................................................................................ 13
Defining stress and understanding the stress process...................................................................................... 13
Identifying sources of stress and anxiety .......................................................................................................... 13
Connecting arousal and anxiety to performance ............................................................................................. 14
Catastrophe theory ........................................................................................................................................... 14
Applying knowledge to professional practice ................................................................................................... 17
College 2 - Chapter 17 concentration ............................................................................................................. 17
Defining concentration ..................................................................................................................................... 17
Explaining attentional focus: three processes .................................................................................................. 19
Connecting concentration to optimal performance ......................................................................................... 20
Identifying types of attentional focus ............................................................................................................... 20
Recognizing attentional problems .................................................................................................................... 20
External distracters........................................................................................................................................... 21
Using self-talk to enhance concentration ......................................................................................................... 21
Techniques for improving self-talk ................................................................................................................... 21
Assessing attentional skills ............................................................................................................................... 22
improving concentration .................................................................................................................................. 22
College 2 - Article: thoughts and attention of athletes under pressure: skill-focus or performance worries? . 23
College 3 - Article: implicit motor learning, reinvestment, and movement disruption. What you don’t know
won’t hurt you. .............................................................................................................................................. 24
Stages of learning of Fitts & Posner ................................................................................................................. 24
Stages of learning: the relation between attention skill level .......................................................................... 25
Implicit versus explicit learning ........................................................................................................................ 25
Reinvesting the wheel ...................................................................................................................................... 26
College 4 - Chapter 18 exercise and psychological well-being ......................................................................... 27
Reducing anxiety and depression with exercise ............................................................................................... 27
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, Fatigue.............................................................................................................................................................. 28
Mechanism ....................................................................................................................................................... 28
Barriers ............................................................................................................................................................. 29
Changing personality and cognitive function with exercise ............................................................................. 29
Enhancing quality of life with exercise ............................................................................................................. 31
Examining the runner’s high ............................................................................................................................. 31
College 4 - Chapter 19 exercise behavior and adherence ................................................................................ 31
Reasons to exercise .......................................................................................................................................... 31
Reasons for not exercising ................................................................................................................................ 32
Problem of exercise adherence ......................................................................................................................... 32
Theories and modules of exercise behavior ...................................................................................................... 32
Determinates of exercise adherence ................................................................................................................ 34
Settings for exercise interventions.................................................................................................................... 34
Strategies for enhancing adherence to exercise ............................................................................................... 34
College 4 - Article: exercise as an intervention to reduce study related fatigue among university students: a
two-arm parallel randomized controlled trial ................................................................................................ 35
College 5 - Chapter 4 motivation .................................................................................................................... 36
Defining motivation .......................................................................................................................................... 36
Reviewing three approaches to motivation...................................................................................................... 36
Building motivation with five guidelines .......................................................................................................... 37
Developing a realistic view of motivation ........................................................................................................ 38
Understanding achievement motivation and competitiveness ........................................................................ 38
Identifying four theories of achievement ......................................................................................................... 38
Self-determination theory (SDT) ....................................................................................................................... 41
Developing achievement motivation and competitiveness .............................................................................. 42
Using achievement motivation in professional practice................................................................................... 42
College 5 - Chapter 7: feedback, reinforcement, and intrinsic motivation ...................................................... 42
Principles of reinforcement............................................................................................................................... 42
Approaches to influencing behavior ................................................................................................................. 43
Guidelines for using positive reinforcement ..................................................................................................... 43
Guidelines for using punishment ...................................................................................................................... 44
Behavior modification in sport ......................................................................................................................... 45
Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards ....................................................................................................... 46
Cognitive evaluation theory ............................................................................................................................. 46
How extrinsic rewards affect intrinsic motivation in sport ............................................................................... 47
Strategies for increasing intrinsic motivation ................................................................................................... 47
Flow-a special case of intrinsic motivation ....................................................................................................... 47
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,College 5 - Article: achievement motivation across training and competition in individual and team sports.. 48
College 6 - Article: music in the exercise and sport domain ............................................................................ 49
Underlying concepts and theories .................................................................................................................... 49
Putative brain mechanisms .............................................................................................................................. 50
Review and synthesis of empirical research ..................................................................................................... 50
In-task music..................................................................................................................................................... 51
Situational factors ............................................................................................................................................ 51
Personal factors ................................................................................................................................................ 52
College 6 - Article: music in the exercise domain: a review and synthesis ...................................................... 53
Conceptual approaches .................................................................................................................................... 53
Attentional processing...................................................................................................................................... 54
Synchronous response to musical rhythm ........................................................................................................ 54
Emotional response to music ............................................................................................................................ 54
College 6 - Chapter 10 leadership ................................................................................................................... 55
Definition of leadership .................................................................................................................................... 55
Approaches to studying leadership .................................................................................................................. 55
Sport-oriented interactional approaches to leadership .................................................................................... 56
Research on the multidimensional model of sport leadership ......................................................................... 58
Four components of effective leadership ......................................................................................................... 59
College 7 - Article: the application of coach leadership models to coaching practice: current state and future
directions ....................................................................................................................................................... 59
Review of the current models ........................................................................................................................... 60
Summary of the frameworks ............................................................................................................................ 60
Measurement of coach leadership ................................................................................................................... 60
College 7 - Article: the coach-athlete relationship: a motivational model ...................................................... 61
The motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship in a nutshell .......................................................... 61
The influence of the coach’s behaviors on athletes’ motivation: the role of autonomy support, structure, and
involvement ...................................................................................................................................................... 62
Perceptions of relatedness, competence, and autonomy as mediators of the impact of autonomy-supportive
behaviors on intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation...................................................................... 62
College 7 – Notes............................................................................................................................................ 63
Coaching & leadership: theoretical principles .................................................................................................. 63
Multidimensional model of leadership ............................................................................................................. 63
Mediation model of leadership ........................................................................................................................ 64
Motivation model of coach-athlete relationship .............................................................................................. 65
Autonomy support across contexts and sport types ........................................................................................ 65
Enhance motivation.......................................................................................................................................... 67
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,College 8 - Article: an examination of the differences in flow between individual and team athletes ............ 67
College 8 – Chapter 9: Team dynamics and cohesion ..................................................................................... 68
Recognizing the difference between groups and teams ................................................................................... 68
Identifying three theories of group development ............................................................................................. 69
Understanding group structure ........................................................................................................................ 70
Creating an effective team climate .................................................................................................................. 71
Maximizing individual performance in team sports ......................................................................................... 72
Definition of cohesion ....................................................................................................................................... 74
Conceptual model of cohesion ......................................................................................................................... 74
Tools for measuring cohesion ........................................................................................................................... 74
Other factors associated with cohesion ........................................................................................................... 75
Strategies for enhancing cohesion ................................................................................................................... 76
College 9 - Chapter 24 aggression in sport ...................................................................................................... 76
Define aggression ............................................................................................................................................. 76
Understanding the causes of aggression.......................................................................................................... 77
Examining aggression in sport ......................................................................................................................... 78
Applying knowledge to professional practice ................................................................................................... 81
College 9 - Chapter 25: Character development and good sporting behavior ................................................. 82
Defining character, fair play, and good sporting behavior ............................................................................... 82
Developing character and good sporting behavior .......................................................................................... 83
Examining moral development research .......................................................................................................... 85
Understanding the connection between moral reasoning and moral behavior ............................................... 85
Hazing and bullying in sport ............................................................................................................................. 85
Studying the connection between character development and physical activity ............................................. 86
Guide practice in character development......................................................................................................... 87
College 10 - Chapter 6: competition and cooperation .................................................................................... 87
Defining competition and cooperation ............................................................................................................. 87
Viewing competition as a process .................................................................................................................... 88
Reviewing studies of competition and cooperation ......................................................................................... 89
Enhancing cooperation ..................................................................................................................................... 90
New forms of competition: ‘virtual competition’ ............................................................................................. 91
College 10 - Article: The effects of individual and team competitions on performance, emotions, and effort 92
Effects on individual and team competitions on performance ......................................................................... 92
Effects of individual and team competitions on emotion ................................................................................. 92
Enjoyment-based and anxiety-based mechanisms to explain changes in performance among different types
of competition .................................................................................................................................................. 92
The present experiment .................................................................................................................................... 93
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, Discussion ......................................................................................................................................................... 93
College 10 - Article: driven to win rivalry, motivation, and performance ....................................................... 94
Competition versus rivalry ................................................................................................................................ 94
Rivalry as a competitive relationship ................................................................................................................ 94
Discussion ......................................................................................................................................................... 94
College 11 - Chapter 13: arousal regulation .................................................................................................... 94
Increasing self-awareness of arousal ............................................................................................................... 94
Using anxiety reduction techniques ................................................................................................................. 95
Exploring the matching hypothesis .................................................................................................................. 98
Coping with adversity ....................................................................................................................................... 98
Using arousal-inducing techniques................................................................................................................... 98
College 11 - Chapter 14 imagery ..................................................................................................................... 99
Defining imagery .............................................................................................................................................. 99
Uses of imagery ................................................................................................................................................ 99
Evidence of imagery’s effectiveness ................................................................................................................. 99
Imagery in sport: where, when why and what ............................................................................................... 100
Factors affecting the effectiveness of imagery ............................................................................................... 100
How imagery works ........................................................................................................................................ 100
Keys to effective imagery ............................................................................................................................... 101
How to develop an imagery training program ............................................................................................... 102
When to use imagery ..................................................................................................................................... 102
College 11- Chapter 16 goal setting .............................................................................................................. 103
Definition of goals .......................................................................................................................................... 103
Effectiveness of goal setting ........................................................................................................................... 103
Principles of goal setting ................................................................................................................................ 104
Development of group goals .......................................................................................................................... 104
Design of a goal-setting system ..................................................................................................................... 104
Common problems in goal setting .................................................................................................................. 105
Notes college 11 ........................................................................................................................................... 105
Mental toughness and coping ........................................................................................................................ 105
Psychological skills.......................................................................................................................................... 105
College 11 - Article: effects of self-talk: a systematic review ........................................................................ 110
Discussion ....................................................................................................................................................... 110
College 12 - Chapter 12: introduction to psychological skills training .......................................................... 111
Notes college 12 ........................................................................................................................................... 115
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,College 1 - Chapter 1: Welcome to sport and exercise psychology
Defining sport and exercise psychology
What is sport psychology: effects of psychological factors on sport-related behavior,
performance, and well-being.
Sport psychology consists of three orientations:
1. Psychophysiological orientation: they believe that the best way to study behavior
during sport and exercise is to examine the physiological processes of the brain and
their influences on physical activity. They look at heart rate, brain wave activity, and
muscle action potentials.
2. Social-psychological orientation: they assume that behavior is determined by a
complex interaction between the environment and the personal makeup of the
athlete or exerciser. They examine how the individual’s social environment influences
her behavior and how the behavior influences the social-psychological environment.
3. Cognitive-behavioral orientation: they emphasize the athlete’s or exerciser’s
cognitions or thoughts and behaviors and believe that thought is central in
determining behavior. They can develop self-report measures to assess self-
confidence, anxiety, goal orientation, etc.
Sport and exercise psychology is the scientific study of people and their behaviors in sport
and exercise contexts and the practical application of that knowledge. These psychologists
identify principles and guidelines that professionals can use to help adults and children
participate in and benefit from sport and exercise activity.
- Affect: one’s feelings
- Behavior: one’s actions
- Cognitions: one’s thoughts
Sport and exercise psychologists seek to understand and help elite athletes, children, people
with physical or mental disabilities, seniors and recreational participants achieve maximum
participation, peak performance, personal satisfaction, and development through
participation.
Specializing in sport psychology
Three roles of sport psychologists:
1. Conducting research: sport psychologists study problems such as exercise adherence.
Then they share their findings with colleagues and participants in the field.
2. Teaching: Sport and exercise psychologist teach university courses.
3. Consulting: Consulting with individual athletes or athletic teams is done to develop
psychological skills for enhancing competitive performance and training.
Distinguishing between two specialties
1. Clinical sport psychologists: extensive training in psychology, so they can detect and
treat individuals with emotional disorders.
2. Educational sport psychology specialists: have extensive training in sport and
exercise science, physical education, and kinesiology, and they understand the
psychology of human movement, particularly as it relates to sport and exercise
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, contexts. Anxiety management, confidence development, and improved
communication are some of the areas that educational sport psychology specialists
address.
Reviewing the history of sport and exercise psychology
Sport psychology dates to 1880. The history of sport psychology falls into six periods.
Period 1: Ealy years (1893-1920)
Triplett (1898) is one of the first contributors to the field of sport
psychology. He studied that when a cyclist performed alone, he was not
able to give the same energy as when he biked with multiple bikers.
His initial observations were correct by studying cycling racing records, he
conducted an experiment in which children were to reel in fishing line as
fast as they could.
Later a finding was that arousal and performance is not a linear line.
E.W. Scripture was interested in taking a more scientific data-based approach to the study of
psychology. He saw sport as an excellent way to demonstrate the value of this new scientific
psychology. Then he conducted studies on reaction and muscle movement times of fencers
and runners as well as transfer of physical training.
Period 2: the development of laboratories and psychological testing (1921-1938)
This time is characterized by the development of sport psychology laboratories and
increased psychological testing. Coleman Griffith is seen as the father of American sport
psychology
Period 3: preparation for the future (1939-1965)
Franklin Henry: trained physical educators
Dorothy Hazeltine Yates developed the technique: relaxation-set method.
Ogilvie (1960) – applied sport psychologist: different types of athletes have different
personality characteristics
Zajonc (1965): social facilitation theory – there is an audience effect, an audience creates
arousal. This influences performance.
Period 4: establishment of Academic sport psychology (1966-1977)
By mid 1960s physical education had become an academic discipline. Applied sport
psychology consultants also began working with athletes and teams.
Period 5: multidisciplinary science and practice in sport and exercise psychology (1978-1999)
From 1970s to 1999 there was a large grow in sport and exercise psychology. More and
better research was conducted.
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, Period 6: contemporary sport and exercise psychology (2000-present)
Sport psychology has a bright future. Several serious issues are present.
Focusing on sport and exercise psychology around the world
The ISSP promotes and disseminates information about sport psychology throughout the
world.
Peak performance
Sport (peak) performance is dependent on individual
differences (motivation, self-efficiency), environmental factors
(coach-effectiveness, peer teams, parents, opportunities) and
psychological (life) skills (goal setting, attentional focus,
imagery, relaxation)
The four unit of sport skills: mental, physical, technical, and
tactical
X-model: box 1
- Task demands: footbal, high jump, discus
throwing
- Task-cricumstances: footbal: (artificial) grass,
ball, referee, opponent, weather
- Task-conditions: rules of the game, time
regulations, pay/rewards, substitues, labour
contract
- Task-relations: team or solo, relation coach-
athlete, relation colleagues/competitors,
communication
X-model: box 2
- Stable (habitual) characteristics
o Physical: length, weight, power, speed, strength
o Technical: ability
o Psychological: persistence, mental toughness, need for achievement, goal
orientation
o Tactical: reading the game
- Momentaneous (variable) characteristics
o Current capacity (e.g., injury/fatigue); state anxiety, goal state.
Actual vs required:
- Actual characteristics (ist-situation):
o What are actual KSAO’s of this player
o What are actual characteristics of this sport team
- Required characteristics (soll-situation):
o What are required KSAO’s of this player?
o What are required characteristics of this sport team?
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