In dit document is een complete samenvatting van alle stof voor het vak Kennismaking met Onderzoeksmethoden en Statistiek te vinden. Bijgesloten is de informatie uit het programma Grasple en alle nuttige informatie uit de hoorcolleges.
Aantekeningen boek kwalitatief en correlationeel
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Evidence-based treatments: therapies that are supported by research
Producer of research-consumer of research
How psychologists approach their work:
Act as empirists in their investigations
Test theories through research and revise their theories based on the resulting data
Follow norms in the scientific community that prioritize objectivity and fairness
Take an empirical approach to both applied research and basic research
Make their work public
Empiricism: using evidences from the senses or from instructments that assist the senses as the basic
for conclusions
Theory-data cycle:
1. Asking a particular set of questions that reflects your theory: set of statements -as simple as
possible- that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another
2. Making specific predictions/hypothesis which are tested by collected data. Hypothesis: the
specific outcome the researcher will observe in a study if the theory is accurate,
preregistered: after the study is designed, but before collecting any data
3. Using the outcome to change your idea about the problem
Cupboard theory of mother-infant attachment: a mother is valuable to a baby because she is a
source of food
Contact comfort theory: babies are attached to their mothers because of the comfort of their warm,
fuzzy fur.
Data: a set of observations
A study’s data supports or is consistent with a theory.
Replication: the study is conducted again to test whether the result is consistent
Weight of the evidence: the collection of studies, including replications, of the same theory
Falsifiability: the capacity for some proposition, statement, theory or hypothesis to be proven wrong
Merton’s scientific norms:
Universalism: Scientific claims are evaluated according to their merit. The same
preestablished criteria apply to all scientists and all research
Communality: Scientific findings should be freely shared.
Disinterestedness: Scientists strive to discover the truth, whatever it is
Organized skepticism: Scientists question everything
Applied research: a practical problem in mind; local real-world context
Basic research: enhance the general body of knowledge
,Translational research: using basic research to solve problems
Before a study is submitted to a scientific journal, the article is peer-reviewed.
Journalism: a secondhand report about the research, written by journalists or laypeople
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Comparison group: this group enables us to compare what would happen both with and without the
thing we are interested in
Experience has no comparison group. Experience is confounded: alternative explanations. Research
is better than experience, because the conditions can be set up. This can be done with confederates:
an actor playing a specific role for an experiment. Research results are probabilistic: its findings do
not explain all cases all of the time.
Ways that intuition can be biased:
Being swayed by a good story
Availability heuristic: Being persuaded by what comes easily to mind
Present (bias): Failing to think about what we cannot see
Confirmation bias: Focusing on the evidence we like best
Bias blind spot: Biased about being biased
Be cautious about basing your beliefs on what everybody says – even when the statement is made by
someone who is (or claims to be) an authority. Ask yourself about the source of their ideas. Not all
research is equally reliable.
Consulting scientific sources:
Empirical journal article: report for the first time the results of an empirical research study.
This contains details about the study’s method, the statistical tests used and the results of
the study.
Review journal article: summarize and integrate all the published studies that have been
done in one research area. Meta-analysis: this technique combines the results of many
studies and gives a number that summarizes the effect size
Books and edited books
PsychINFO: comprehensive tool for sorting through the vast amount of psychological
research. Paywalled/open access
Google Scholar: doesn’t let you limit your search terms to specific fields
Components of an empirical journal article
Abstract: concise summary of the article
Introduction: topic of the study, the background for the research
Method: how the researchers conducted their study
Results
Discussion: the study’s research question and methods and how well the results supported
the hypothesis, the study’s importance, alternative explanations for the data, interesting
questions raised by the research
References: all the sources
,Science in the popular media: How good is the study behind the story? Is the story accurate?
Disinformation: the deliberate creation and sharing of information known to be false. There are
motives for and types of disinformation.
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Three common types of measures:
1. A self-report measure: operationalizes a variable by recording people’s answers to questions
about themselves in a questionnaire or interview
2. Observational measure/behavioral measure: recording observable behaviors or physical
traces of behaviors
3. Physiological measure: recording biological data
Average inter-item correlation (AIC): the average of all the correlations
Crombach’s alpha: mathematically combines the AIC and the number of items in the scale
Known-groups paradigm: researchers see whether scores on the measure can discriminate among
two or more groups whose behavior is already confirmed.
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If you examined every person in the population, you would be conducting a census.
Biased sample: some members of the population have a much higher probability than other
members of being included in the sample.
Unbiased sample: all members of the population have an equal chance of being included in the
sample.
A sample might be biased by convenience sampling and self-selection.
Nonprobability sampling technique
Convenience sampling
Purposive sampling: A sampling strategy in which cases are deliberately selected on the basis
of features that distinguish them from other cases
Snowball sampling: A sampling strategy in which the researcher starts with one respondent
who meets the requirement for inclusion and then asks the respondent to recommend
another person to contact (who also meets the requirement for inclusion). This is a useful
technique when studying hard-to-identify populations.
Quota sampling: the researcher identifies subsets of the population of interest and then sets
a target number for each category in the sample. Next, the researcher samples from the
population of interest non-randomly until the quotas are filled.
Frequency claims are claims about how often something happens in a population. Self-selection
affects the results of a sample. When you know a sample is not representative, you should think
carefully about how much it matters. Larger samples are not more representative. It is much more
important how the sample is selected.
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(Participant observation/etnography: A research method where researchers immerse themselves in
the lives and social worlds of the people they want to understand. Early 20th century: anthropologist
studied non-Westerner cultures, sociologists studied subcultures within own culture: A group within
a larger culture: a subset of people with beliefs and behaviors that differ from those of the larger
culture. Technological advances and globalisation happened: The development of worldwide social
and economic relationships. Etnhnographies are bounded by time and space, e.g. community
studies: a study that takes the entirety of social life into account but within a bounded community
such as a small town or a neighborhood. These studies shed another light on people. An
ethnographer can have a different role, depending on the research question and the circumstances
of the research.
Four roles a researcher can have while doing fieldwork:
Complete participant: The researcher goes undercover, immersing themselves in a fieldwork site and
keeping their identity as a researcher a secret. This raises ethical questions, because it involves
deceiving the researchers subjects. Going native: The threat that fieldworkers who completely
immerse themselves in the world of their subjects will lose their original identity and forget they are
researchers. Reactivity: When the presence and actions of the researcher change the behaviors and
beliefs of the research subjects. Cognitive dissonance: The unpleasant or distressing feeling we
experience when we hold two discrepant beliefs, or we engage in a behavior that violates our beliefs.
Participant observer: the researcher tells at least some of the people being studied about his or her
real identity as a researcher. Informed consent: The freedom to say yes or no to participating in a
research study once all the possible risks and benefits have been properly explained. Not every
person the ethnographer encounters will have given consent or even know they are part of a study,
so ethnographers need to be aware of whether people are being studied without their knowledge or
consent. Hawthorne effect: Named after a study of factory workers, the phenomenon whereby
merely being observed changes subjects’ behavior.
Observer: the researcher tells people they are being observed but does not take part in the subjects’
activities and lives. Often a researcher has to be an observer, because he doesn’t have the skill to
participate.
Covert observer: the researcher observes people who do not know they are being observed or
studied. Danger of misunderstanding the situation. Systematic observation: A method of observation
in which the researcher follows a checklist and timeline for observing phenomena.
Grounded theory: A systematic, inductive approach to qualitative research that suggests that
researchers should extrapolate conceptual relationships from data rather than formulate testable
hypotheses from existing theory.
Extended case study approach: An approach to theory in qualitative research in which the
researcher starts with an established theory and chooses a field site or case to improve upon or
modify the existing theory.
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