2.3 History and Methods of Psychology
Problem 1 – History
Perspectives on knowledge:
Empiricism: Knowledge arises through external processes (perception and sensory
perceptions and is obtained by gaining experiences. Most empiricists argue that
acquiring knowledge is a combination of cognitive and external processes but attach
more value to the latter.
Hard-core empiricists argue that cognitive processes are not necessary to obtain
knowledge.
Nativism: Human traits can be explained by heredity. Knowledge is innate and
therefore present from birth. Many nativists are hard-core rationalists.
Rationalism: Knowledge arises through internal (thinking) processes (logical
reasoning). Some rationalists argue that knowledge comes from reasoning about
sensory or perceptual perceptions. Hard-core rationalists argue that perception is not
necessary to obtain knowledge.
The Body and Mind:
Dualism: Assert that there are two realities:
o the reality that we perceive
o and the reality that we cannot perceive (world of ideas).
Monism: There is only one form of reality, either physical (body) or mental (mind).
Everything can be explained from either matter (materialism) or ideas (Idealism).
Idealism: States that truth consists of ideas (not physical).
• Everything can be explained by mental processes in the mind
• An idealist is also a monist (body and mind are not separate).
Materialism: The only form of reality is matter.
• Everything can be explained from matter, including psychological processes.
• A materialist is also a reductionist (explaining psychological phenomena from
biological terms).
Plato (427-347 B.C.)
• Nativist: knowledge is innate
• Rationalist: Mental operations are necessary to find the truth. Forms (real
knowledge) are achieved through rational thinking.
• Idealist: Ultimate reality consists of ideas (forms) instead of the world we see
through sensory perception.
, • Dualist: he distinguished between body and mind. The mind / soul contains
real knowledge and is immortal, the physical body is imperfect and mortal.
Periods in Plato’s history:
1. First period: writing down the methods and thoughts of his teacher Socrates
2. Second period: using a combination of the Socratic method knowledge can be
obtained through reasoning) and Pythagorean philosophy (sensory perceptions
influence reasoning but are not necessary).
Two worlds according to Plato:
• Intelligible world: (world of knowledge) - consists of ideas / forms (real
knowledge). These are universals known by reason. These shapes arise from
reasoning from previous knowledge.
• World of appearances: (world of opinion) - the world of opinion is made up of
changing particulars of the material world, conveyed by our senses. However,
our senses are not accurate, so the body prevents us from gaining knowledge.
Definition of Knowledge by Plato:
• Knowledge must always be true
• The knowledge must be rationally justifiable. It must be substantiated and
convince other people that it is correct.
• JTB – Justified, True, Belief
Theory of Forms
• According to Plato, everything in the empirical world is a manifestation of a
pure form (idea) that exists in abstract. So, it is a spiritual form and does not
relate to the material.
• Sensory perception is the result of the interaction between pure form and
matter.
• Because matter changes continuously, the result of this interaction is less
perfect than the pure form. Plato believed that knowledge is not obtained
through perception, but through forms.
• Forms are characteristics of objects, ideals that apply to everyone. However, it
is difficult to describe these forms because they cannot be perceived from their
nature. That is why Plato came up with a number of metaphors for these
forms.
Metaphors for forms:
1. The Simile of the Sun: The form of the good is in the intelligible world of forms
what the sun is to the physical world of objects. Plato states that the sun illuminates
objects so that people can see them. Because this light is necessary to be able to see
objects (besides the eyes and the object), the light of the sun equals good.
2. The Metaphor of the Line/The Analogy of the Divided Line:
, • Knowledge through imagination: imagining is seen as the lowest form of
understanding, because it is based on
images/ pictures
• Knowledge through observation of
objects: not yet a complete form of
knowledge because it is obtained
through sense perception
• Knowledge through mathematical
relationships: not yet a complete form
of knowledge because it is obtained
through assumptions
• Knowledge through perception of
forms: this is the highest form because
knowledge is obtained through
understanding abstract forms. This cannot be done through sensory
perception, but only through rational thinking. So, this is real knowledge
because the forms are mastered by rational thinking.
The good can be seen as the highest form of wisdom / knowledge and contains all
forms. The good also demonstrates the coherence between the different forms. We
as humans find ourselves in the world of appearances, to know forms and thus
achieve the good we must pass through reasoning to the intelligible world.
3. The Allegory of the Cave: Plato described fictional
prisoners who spend their entire lives trapped in a cave
and can only look forward. Behind them is a road that
people travel on, behind the road is a fire, presenting the
projection of shadows on the walls in the cave. To the
prisoners, the shadows on the wall are reality to them.
• The shadows on the wall fall under the lowest
level of acquiring knowledge (knowledge by
imagination). They are sensory perceptions that
provide unreliable images of reality.
• One of the prisoners escapes and can see what is
hiding behind the shadows.
• The escaped prisoner thus sees the real shapes that are responsible for the
shadows in the cave. He will gain real knowledge through this and will also
want to transfer this wisdom to the other prisoners.
• The shadows on the wall belongs to the world of appearances and the lowest
level of the divided line, while the shapes seen by the escaped prisoner belong
to the intelligible world and the highest level of the divided line.
4. The Ladder of Love: describes the love of beauty and consists of different steps /
levels.
• Physical love: lust, sexual love
, • General love: love for everybody and every soul
• Develop a love for art and philosophy (highest ladder)
Learning as remembering
Plato believed in reincarnation. When a person dies, a small part of the knowledge is
retained. When you are subsequently born again in a new body, this knowledge is
taken with you. The process of learning actually consists of remembering the
knowledge from the previous life. Good people take more knowledge with them after
death than bad people.
Plato and soul:
Knowing that not everyone had the ability to think rationally, Plato, stated that the
soul consists of three components:
1. The rational soul is the highest soul and also the only immortal. Moral
principles and future goals are Important, and , it is able to withstand and delay
biological and emotional needs
2. The spirited soul is part of the body and therefore mortal. It includes emotional
needs and is motivated by glory and fame. Because it also has the ability to feel
shame and guilt, this soul is above the third soul (desiring soul).
3. The desiring / appetitive soul is also part of the body and therefore mortal. It
consists of irrational biological needs such as hunger and lust.
Real knowledge can only be obtained by focusing on the rational soul and suppressing
physical and emotional needs.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
• Rationalist: knowledge is obtained through logical reasoning
• Empiricist: sensory perception leads to the acquisition of knowledge
• Monist/ materialist: matter is the only form of reality, everything is physical
Aristotle also talked about forms but gave them a different definition from Plato. He
made a distinction between matter and forms.
Everything in the world consists of matter, it is
physically present. However, in order to make it
meaningful, it must be shaped. Matter is therefore
what an object consists of (e.g. marble or plastic) and
the shape is then what the object is (e.g. bottle,
statue). However, Aristotle’s concept of form
consists of more than just material form, but also
three other uses.
Concept of Form – 3 uses:
1. Essential cause: the definition that can be given to the object (e.g., the statue
“the thinker”)
