Comparing Theologies and Philosophies of Religion
Lecture 1
Theology of Religions: How to make sense of Religious Diversity
» Hermeneutics of interfaith relations – trying to overcome the gap without projecting
expectations and biases of the other – finding balance between sameness and difference.
» Inter-rituality – how the exchange of the faiths happens through, by and via ritual.
» Interreligious conflicts happen because of what people do; not believe.
» Comparing different religious traditions – reading yourselves through the eyes of another;
and the other way around.
» Comparative Theology (CT) emerged in 1990’s as a response to Theologies of Religions and
religious diversity.
» Theologies of Religion is a Christian fraud – (pluralism, inclusivism, exclusivism) is very
Christian approach – Because of the way religions were organized in the West, non-
Christians learned how to analyze religions and how this approach framed religious
discussions – fact that this approach is not universal, or generic was no acknowledged and
often denied.
» CT will respond to this ↑, things should be done differently.
» 1960’s outwards – theologians deal with the question of religious diversity.
» Christianity emerged in the context of plurality.
» For Christians it is always question of salvation. Different historical context = different
answer to the same question.
» This question faded when there was Christianization and Christianity became the religion
of the state. There was assumption that all people were aware of the gospel – so, it’s others
fault they were not saved.
» With colonization everything changes – Christian idea that others are pagan, ideologist,
they are all in the service of the devil.
» Some theologians say it is not sign of the devil but of their desire for God. This desire is a
sign of intelligence implying they can be saved.
» Question whether they know God is in their heart; if they cannot know Him, they are like
animals, enslaved.
» Theologies are not innocent – political dimension – they impact actions of people.
» In 20th century the age of globalization: Eurocentric approach, increased migration, global
challenges, economic & environmental crisis, growing interest in other religions. Engaging
with encounter with those of the other traditions. It was always present but to a lesser
degree – discourse growing all over the world.
» 2 Aspects of Religious Plurality:
(+) other sources of spirituality and morality, pleas for interreligious dialogue
(-) religious conflicts, disastrous consequences of closedness.
» Religious Plurality has always been challenging for Christians: (Key Question) Is it possible
for non-Christians to be saved and how?
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,» Problems: Christian assumption from soteriological perspective – presupposition of
Christianity as a default mode – focus/fixation on the other – we are defined by what we are
not – 2 categories (Christian vs non-Christian).
» 3 theological answers/soteriological models surprisingly found their way to other religious
traditions as well as psychology, sociology, and pedagogy of religion.
» They all assume 2 Christian Axioms: → tension between particularism and universalism.
1. God’s universal will of salvation.
2. Jesus is the Christ.
» Exclusivism: negative appropriation of religion as such → it is human effort to save
themselves rather than leave it to God. Focus of mission and conversion.
» Inclusivism: critique of exclusivism → it is difficult to reconcile with the idea that God
wants to save all. Negative analysis of the contemporary culture; mindfulness, spirituality is
not proper approach to their religion. Aim: balance between God’s will and Christ as Christ
is always involved in the saving process – notion of anonymous Christians. There is
equality between people but not religions. “All people will be united through God, who will
reveal through Christ.”
» Pluralism: critique of both, it is problematic to judge others based on Christian criteria.
» W.C. Smith – pluralist position, addressing arrogance of Christian evaluation of other
religions.
» Pluralist Hypothesis: religions are historically and culturally determined expression of the
Ultimate Reality → (in line with Negative Theology). Equal saving paths, ultimate is noble,
virtues, mysterious, ineffable. All religions capture a piece of the Ultimate Reality. Ultimate
was filtered through people’s personal/impersonal experiences of God. In short, salvation
can be reached through many paths.
» Important distinction of ultimate and penultimate – don’t make ultimate what it’s not.
» Not conflict of different truth claims but possibly complementary.
» Criterion of truth/untruth: promotion of salvation, pragmatism. When people absolutize,
their truth claims its untruth; its path to violence, disclination, and oppression; thus,
opposite of salvation.
» Salvific approach: Opening the hearth to those of other faith.
» Pluralists are not relativists! It’s not relative to them because they are not the subject.
Chapter 1: M. Moyaert Fragile Identities: Towards a Theology of Interreligious Hospitality
What are the three classical theological approaches to religious diversity?
Exclusivism (Christian truth claims are universally true, and truth claims from other religions
are not true). There is no such thing as universal salvation. Exclusivism affirms God’s will for
universal salvation but holds that only those who turn explicitly to Christ in faith can be saved.
Non-Christians are excluded from salvation. The emphasis lies on Christ as the unique
mediator of divine salvation.
Inclusivism (Christian truth claims are universally true, but truth claims from other religions
also contain some truth, but not the whole truth). They are still interpreted in Christian context.
There are other possible ways leading to salvation, but they cannot be considered as
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,independent of Christ. Inclusivism emphasizes God’s will for universal salvation more strongly
than the necessity of explicit faith. Non-Christians can be saved, but Christ is already involved
in this process.
Pluralism (truth claims from all religions point to a universal Truth). Pluralism uncouples the
possibility of salvation from the mediation through Christ and states that the religions form
different and equal ways of salvation.
*Particularism (each religion has its own truth claims, that are incommensurable with the truth
claims of other religions).
How do you make sense of the reality of religious diversity? Which of these models resonates most with
you? Why?
To make sense of religious diversity one must be open and eager to become acquitted with
other religious tradition by assuming plurality of religions and affirming religious diversity.
For me pluralism resonates the most but if I could have other choice, I would say that
particularism resonates the most. I do not belong to any religious tradition, I do not agree with
theistic religious traditions, that is why I decided to study Buddhism. Another problem is that a
Buddhist rarely would say he/she is a Buddhist or belongs to this religion. I share John Hick’s
approach as Buddhism modernism also emphasizes importance of the experience.
Summary:
» The order in which we discuss the three models is important for rhetorical reasons
especially, i.e. first exclusivism, then inclusivism, and finally pluralism. This order reflects a
gradual buildup from “less” to “more” openness for the religious other.
» Theological reflection is guided by the context in which theology is done.
» Theological literature has an eye for both the positive and negative sides of pluralization.
» The contemporary experience of religious diversity challenges theology to develop an open
and constructive theology of interreligious dialogue.
» Searching for a connection with the experience of religious diversity as a source of
spirituality and morality, the focus has shifted recently from the religious other as the focus
has shifted recently from the religious other as a problem to the question of what the
significance of these religions can be from the perspective of God's salvific intentions for the
world.
» This shift has two sides. First, there is a shift in accent from the religious other as an
individual to the collective level of religions. Second, the actual (de facto) plurality of
religions is increasingly recognized as a principial (de jure by the law) given.
» The question of salvation arises from two traditional Christian axioms: (1) God’s will for
universal salvation and (2) the notion that salvation comes through Christ.
Exclusivism
» The rejection of universal salvation is the most central view of exclusivism.
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, » Evangelical theology positions itself over against so-called liberal theology, which, in line
with modern optimism, shows immense confidence in human ability.
» Exclusivism looks at religious plurality from the perspective of human sinfulness. Religions
are understood as the expression of human attempts to achieve salvation on their own
power.
» Exclusivism is under attack within the theology of religions.
Inclusivism
» Inclusivism starts precisely with the experience of the spiritual and moral value of other
religions.
» It does not entail that inclusivists hold that all religions are of equal value.
» Inclusivism clings to the definitive reality of salvation in the divine incarnation. The idea
that the other religions are independent paths to salvation cannot be reconciled with God’s
act of salvation in Jesus Christ.
» Dupuis’ theology does not just assume the actual (de facto) plurality but also presupposes
the principial (de jure) affirmation of religious diversity.
» Dupuis describes his theology of religions as “inclusivistic pluralism” or “pluralistic
inclusivism.”
» According to Dupuis, the Trinity is the hermeneutical key for keeping the tension between
identity and openness, between individuality and difference, between unity and diversity,
and between particularity and universality in balance.
» The other religions do contain traces of God’s word, but the revelation of God’s mystery of
salvation is made completely explicit only in Christ.
» The conclusion that the Christ event is the climax of God’s salvific will for humanity.
Pluralism
» Pluralism takes the contemporary experience of plurality as its starting point, as the
touchstone and norm for its reflection, and this brings this theological position to a far-
reaching reinterpretation of the Christian tradition (and other religions).
» Pluralism presents itself as the only intellectually and morally acceptable choice in light of
the history of interreligious conflicts and the experience of religious diversity.
» John Hick’s openness can be seen both in his philosophical reflections and in his theological
work and is translated methodologically into an inductive approach that starts from the
world of actual experience.
» Religious knowledge arises through an experientially grounded relationship with the
divine.
» Hick’s philosophical and theological reflections on religious plurality are connected with
the epistemological importance he attaches to experience.
» The core of this hypothesis is the idea that the different religious traditions “constitute
different ways of experiencing, conceiving and living in relation to an ultimate divine
Reality which transcends all our varied visions of it.”
» Not Christ but the Ultimate Divine Reality constitutes the core and source of all religious
experience and knowledge.
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